Anatomy and Physiology Practice Flashcards

Vocabulary practice flashcards generated from lecture notes covering foundational concepts in human anatomy and physiology.

Anatomy

The study of the structure of a living organism.

Physiology

The study of how living organisms function.

Complementarity of Structure and Function

The principle that anatomical structures are specifically designed to carry out a specific physiological function, and vice versa.

Homeostasis

The body's need and ability to maintain its internal environment within certain anatomical and physiological ranges.

Homeostasis Imbalance

A disruption of normal homeostasis that results in disease.

Negative Feedback

The more common homeostatic control mechanism in which the output of the system shuts off or reduces the original stimulus to maintain a set point.

Positive Feedback

A homeostatic control mechanism in which the response exaggerates or enhances the original stimulus so that the activity is accelerated.

Cations

Positively charged ions formed when an atom loses an electron.

Anions

Negatively charged ions formed when an atom gains an electron.

$$Na^+$$

The most abundant extracellular cation in the body.

$$K^+$$

The most abundant intracellular cation in the body.

$$Cl^-$$

The most abundant extracellular anion in the body.

$$H_2PO_4^-$$

The most abundant intracellular anion in the body.

Acids

Substances that act as proton donors by releasing hydrogen ions ($H^+$) in solution.

Bases

Substances that act as proton acceptors by taking up hydrogen ions ($H^+$).

Salts

Ionic compounds containing cations other than $H^+$ and anions other than the hydroxyl ion ($OH^-$).

Normal Blood pH

The tightly regulated, slightly basic pH range of blood between $7.35$ and $7.45$.

Osmosis

The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution.

Isotonic Solution

A solution in which the interstitial fluid has the same solute concentration as the cytosol, resulting in no net movement of water.

Hypotonic Solution

A solution in which the interstitial fluid is less concentrated than the cytosol, causing water to enter the cell.

Hypertonic Solution

A solution in which the interstitial fluid is more concentrated than the cytosol, causing water to leave the cell.

Channel-Linked Receptors

Plasma membrane receptors that permit ion movement into the cell in direct response to ligand (such as neurotransmitter) binding.

Enzymatic Receptors

Plasma membrane receptors with intracellular protein kinase enzymes that directly phosphorylate other proteins inside the cell upon activation.

G Protein-Coupled Receptors

Plasma membrane receptors that indirectly activate protein kinase enzymes through secondary messengers via a G protein cascade.

Intracellular Receptors

Receptors located inside the cell that bind lipid-soluble steroid hormones (e.g., aldosterone) and enter the nucleus to directly activate genes.

Epithelial Tissue

A primary tissue type characterized by closely packed cells with polarity (apical and basal surfaces), high rate of regeneration, and being avascular but innervated.

Areolar Connective Tissue

A type of loose connective tissue proper that forms part of the skin and membranes covering organs.

Regular Dense Connective Tissue

A type of connective tissue proper containing parallel collagen fibers, forming ligaments, tendons, and aponeuroses.

Hyaline Cartilage

The most abundant cartilage type in the body, found at joint surfaces, ears, nose, larynx, trachea, and rib endings.

Fibrocartilage

A dense cartilage matrix rich in collagen fibers that provides high tensile strength, found in intervertebral discs and knee joints.

Chondrocyte

A mature cartilage cell located inside a lacuna.

Anterior

Anatomic directional term meaning in front of or toward the front surface.

Posterior

Anatomic directional term meaning in back of or toward the back surface.

Dorsal

Anatomic directional term meaning toward the back side of the human body.

Ventral

Anatomic directional term meaning toward the belly side of the human body.

Superior

Anatomic directional term meaning closer to the head.

Inferior

Anatomic directional term meaning closer to the feet.

Medial

Anatomic directional term meaning toward the midline of the body.

Lateral

Anatomic directional term meaning away from the midline of the body.

Contralateral

Anatomic directional term meaning on the opposite side of the body.

Proximal

Anatomic directional term meaning closer to the point of attachment of an appendage to the trunk.

Distal

Anatomic directional term meaning farther away from the point of attachment of an appendage to the trunk.

Hematopoiesis

The process of blood cell formation, which occurs exclusively in red bone marrow.

Ligaments

Bands of dense fibrous connective tissue that attach bone to bone.

Tendons

Cords of dense fibrous connective tissue that attach muscle to bone.

Aponeuroses

Broad, flat sheets of dense fibrous connective tissue that attach muscles to bones or other tissues.

Inorganic Bone Matrix

The mineral component of bone making up approximately $65\%$ of total bone mass, consisting mainly of calcium phosphate $Ca_3(PO_4)_2$ to provide hardness and compression resistance.

Osteoid

The organic bone matrix making up approximately $35\%$ of total bone mass, manufactured and secreted by osteoblasts to provide tensile strength and flexibility.

Osteoblasts

Bone-forming cells that manufacture and secrete osteoid.

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix and act as stress or strain sensors.

Osteoclasts

Cells responsible for bone degradation and resorption.

Osteogenic Cells

Actively mitotic stem cells found in the periosteum and endosteum that differentiate into osteoblasts.

Calcitriol

The active form of vitamin $D_3$ that stimulates the absorption of calcium ions from the small intestine into the blood.

Long Bones

Bones that are longer than they are wide with two enlarged ends, comprising all limb bones except the patella, wrist, and ankle bones.

Short Bones

Roughly cube-shaped bones found in the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals).

Sesamoid Bones

Special short bones that form within tendons, such as the patella.

Flat Bones

Thin, flattened, and usually curved bones, such as the sternum, scapulae, ribs, and cranial bones.

Irregular Bones

Bones with complex shapes that do not fit into long, short, or flat classes, such as vertebrae and hip bones.

Wormian Bones

Tiny bone pebbles found at the junctions between cranial bones within suture joints.

Epiphysis

The expanded end of a long bone whose joint surface is covered with articular cartilage.

Diaphysis

The tubular shaft of a long bone connecting the metaphyses.

Medullary Cavity

The space inside the diaphysis of a long bone filled with yellow bone marrow.

Periosteum

A double-layered membrane surrounding the external surface of a bone, consisting of an outer fibrous layer and an inner osteogenic layer.

Endosteum

A connective tissue membrane lining the medullary cavity and covering the trabeculae of spongy bone.

Osteon

The structural unit of compact bone (Haversian system) composed of elongated concentric cylinders parallel to the long axis of the bone.

Lamella

A layer or ring of bone matrix within an osteon containing collagen fibers arranged in alternating directions to resist twisting stress.

Perforating Canals

Canals (Volkmann's canals) running at right angles to the long axis of a bone that connect periosteal blood vessels and nerves to central canals.

Canaliculi

Hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and to the central canal, allowing transport of nutrients and wastes between osteocytes.

Intramembranous Ossification

The process of bone formation where bone develops directly from fibrous mesenchymal membranes, forming cranial skull bones and the clavicle.

Endochondral Ossification

The process of bone formation where hyaline cartilage models are broken down and replaced by bone tissue.

Epiphyseal Plate

A layer of hyaline cartilage at the metaphysis of growing long bones responsible for interstitial growth in length.

Appositional Growth

Growth in bone thickness or diameter caused by osteoblasts adding new bone beneath the periosteum while osteoclasts resorb bone on the endosteal surface.

Wolff's Law

The principle stating that a bone grows or remodels in response to the mechanical forces and physical loads placed upon it.

Synarthrotic Joint

An immovable joint, such as cranial sutures.

Amphiarthrotic Joint

A slightly movable joint, such as an intervertebral joint.

Diarthrotic Joint

A freely movable joint, characteristic of all synovial joints.

Bursa

A flattened fibrous sac lined with synovial membrane and containing synovial fluid that reduces friction between adjacent moving structures.

Tendon Sheath

An elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon subjected to friction.

Osteoporosis

A homeostatic bone disorder characterized by porous, fragile bones caused when bone resorption by osteoclasts outpaces bone deposition by osteoblasts.

Osteomalacia

A disorder in adults where bones fail to calcify due to vitamin D deficiency, resulting in soft and easily deformed bones.

Rickets

A vitamin D deficiency disease in children leading to inadequately calcified, soft, and bowed bones.

Paget's Disease

A bone disease characterized by excessive and haphazard bone deposit and resorption, resulting in an abnormally high ratio of spongy bone to compact bone.

Osteoarthritis

A non-inflammatory degenerative joint disease where cartilage destruction outpaces replacement, causing exposed bone ends to thicken and form bone spurs.

Rheumatoid Arthritis

A chronic, inflammatory autoimmune disease where the synovial membrane thickens, erodes joint cartilage, and forms scar tissue.

Gouty Arthritis

A joint disorder caused by the deposition of uric acid crystals in joints and soft tissues, leading to acute inflammation.