PAPER 2 SOCIOLOGY

What is meant by family diversity?

The idea that there are many different family structures beyond the traditional nuclear family, including lone-parent, reconstituted, extended, and same-sex families.

Identify 3 types of family diversity.

1. Cultural diversity (e.g., Asian vs. Caribbean families) 2. Social class diversity (differences in parenting and resources) 3. Life-stage diversity (different family structures at different life stages)

What did the Rapoports argue about family diversity?

They identified five types of family diversity: organizational, cultural, social class, life course, and generational.

What is a beanpole family?

A family that is vertically extended with few horizontal ties – more intergenerational (grandparents, parents, children) but fewer siblings or cousins.

Why has cohabitation increased in modern society?

Greater secularisation, changing social norms, rising cost of weddings, and declining stigma toward living together before marriage.

Give two reasons for the decline in marriage rates.

1. Secularisation 2. Greater career opportunities and independence for women.

Name two key reasons for the rise in divorce.

1. Changes in the law (e.g., Divorce Reform Act 1969) 2. Increased expectations of marriage (Giddens – confluent love).

What is a reconstituted family?

A family where one or both partners have children from previous relationships – also called a stepfamily or blended family.

Why has fertility declined in modern societies?

Access to contraception, increased female education and employment, and changing norms around family size.

What impact does declining fertility have on society?

Smaller families, aging population, and changes in dependency ratios.

What did Parsons argue about domestic roles?

Men take on the instrumental role (breadwinner) and women the expressive role (caregiver) – based on biological differences.

What did Bott (1957) mean by joint and segregated conjugal roles?

Joint: partners share roles; Segregated: clear division of labor with men and women performing distinct tasks.

What was found in Oakley’s study on housework?

Only 15% of husbands had a high level of participation in housework – challenging the view of a symmetrical family.

What is the 'triple shift' according to Duncombe and Marsden?

Women do paid work, housework, and emotional work.

What is the 'dual burden'?

When women are expected to take on paid employment and domestic responsibilities.

What did Edgell find about decision-making in families?

Men made more important decisions (e.g., finance), while women made less important decisions (e.g., food shopping).

What is the pooling system?

When couples share income and have joint responsibility for expenditure – seen as more equal than the allowance system.

According to Pahl and Vogler, how is money handled in couples?

They found variation, with pooling more common among dual-earner households but not always leading to equality.

What is the radical feminist view of domestic violence?

It is a result of patriarchal society and male dominance; men use violence to control women (Dobash and Dobash).

How do Marxist feminists explain domestic violence?

Result of stress from capitalism and frustration in the male breadwinner role, taken out on women at home.

What is the 'dark figure' of domestic violence?

The large number of domestic violence cases that go unreported due to fear, shame, or distrust of authorities.

What does it mean to say childhood is a social construct?

The experience of childhood varies across time, cultures, and societies – not a fixed, biological stage.

What did Aries argue about historical childhood?

In medieval times, childhood did not exist as a separate phase; children were treated like mini-adults.

How does modern Western society view childhood?

As a time of innocence, dependence, and protection – supported by laws and education.

What is 'toxic childhood' according to Palmer?

Modern society harms children through fast food, excessive screen time, and pressure from exams and consumerism.

What did Postman argue about childhood?

That it is disappearing due to the breakdown of information hierarchies – children are exposed to adult content through media.

What is the functionalist view of education?

Education serves key functions for society, including socialization, role allocation, and the transmission of norms and values.

What did Emile Durkheim argue about education?

Education creates social solidarity and teaches shared norms and values needed for cooperation and unity.

What did Talcott Parsons say about school?

School acts as a bridge between family and wider society, based on meritocracy and universalistic standards.

What is role allocation (Davis and Moore)?

Education sorts individuals into roles in the workforce based on merit and ability, rewarding the most talented.

One criticism of the functionalist view of education?

It ignores inequality and how education may reproduce class advantage rather than reward merit.

What is the Marxist view of education?

Education serves the interests of capitalism by reproducing class inequality and legitimizing the ruling class ideology.

What did Althusser argue about education?

Education is an ideological state apparatus that transmits ruling class ideology and maintains class control.

What is the hidden curriculum (according to Marxists)?

The unspoken values taught in schools, such as obedience and acceptance of hierarchy, which prepare students for exploitation.

What did Bowles and Gintis argue in the 'correspondence principle'?

The school system mirrors the workplace – it teaches discipline, punctuality, and hierarchy to prepare workers.

One criticism of the Marxist view of education?

It is too deterministic and assumes students always accept the system – ignores student resistance.

What is the feminist view of education?

Education has historically reinforced patriarchy, though some feminists argue it is improving due to changes in gender roles.

How does school reinforce gender roles?

Through gendered subject choices, male-dominated leadership, sexist expectations, and the hidden curriculum.

What is a strength of the feminist view of education?

Highlights gender inequality and the persistence of sexism in education and the curriculum.

One criticism of the feminist view of education?

It may overlook improvements in female achievement and the challenges faced by boys.

How does social class affect educational achievement?

Working-class students often underachieve due to material deprivation, cultural factors, and school bias.

What is cultural capital (Bourdieu)?

Middle-class students possess the values, language, and skills that are valued in education, giving them an advantage.

What is material deprivation?

Lack of resources like books, internet, quiet space, or proper nutrition that negatively affect student achievement.

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?

When a teacher labels a student, the student internalizes the label and acts accordingly, impacting their performance.

What are anti-school subcultures?

Groups of students (often working-class) who reject school values and norms, leading to poor achievement.