Social Psychology: Helping, Aggression, and Eyewitness Testimony

Prosocial Behavior

Behavior intended to help others (donating, volunteering, letting someone borrow notes).

Kin Selection

We help relatives because it increases the survival of shared genes.

Helping Siblings or Friends Study

People often help biological relatives more—but close friends can receive just as much help when emotional closeness is high.

Altruism

Helping solely to benefit another person.

Reciprocal Altruism

Helping someone with the expectation they'll help you later.

True Altruism

Helping with no expectation of reward.

Empathy

Ability to understand and feel another's emotional state.

Negative State Relief Model

People help to reduce their own distress or negative emotions (guilt, sadness).

Rewards of Helping (Explicit)

Praise, money, recognition.

Rewards of Helping (Implicit)

Feeling good, boosting self-esteem.

Batson's Empathy-Altruism Model

High empathy → motivation to help for altruistic reasons.

Katie Study

High-empathy participants still helped even when they could 'forget' a sad story.

Kitty Genovese Case

1964 murder that inspired research on bystander intervention after reports that many witnesses didn't intervene.

Bystander Effect

People are less likely to help when others are present.

5-Step Model of Helping

1. Notice the event 2. Interpret as an emergency 3. Take responsibility 4. Know how to help 5. Decide to help.

Seminary Student Study

Time pressure strongly predicts helping; topic of sermon did NOT.

Good Moods & Bad Moods

Good moods → more helping; bad moods → sometimes increase helping.

Personality Traits Associated with Helping

Agreeableness, empathy, emotional intelligence, moral reasoning.

Does Wealth Predict Helping?

Wealthier people often help less in spontaneous situations.

Effect of Attractiveness on Helping

Attractive people receive more help (halo effect).

Perceived Responsibility

People help less when they feel the person caused their own problem.

Identity Fusion

Strong merging of personal identity with group identity → extreme loyalty and willingness to sacrifice.

Jogger Study

People help ingroup members more than outgroup members—unless a broader identity is primed.

Aggression Types

Physical, verbal, psychological.

Violence

Extreme physical aggression.

Anger

Emotional state.

Hostility

Persistent negative attitude toward others.

Proactive vs. Reactive Aggression

Proactive: planned, goal-directed; Reactive: impulsive, emotional.

Cultural Factors

Poverty, inequality, norms of masculinity, availability of weapons, honor cultures.

Bullying Across Cultures

Occurs everywhere but differs in prevalence, types, and school norms.

Gender Differences in Aggression

Men: more physical aggression; Women: more relational/indirect aggression.

Personality Traits Linked to Aggression

Low agreeableness, low conscientiousness, high impulsivity, neuroticism.

Dark Tetrad

Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, sadism.

Testosterone

Linked to increased aggression, but context matters.

Low 2D:4D Ratio

Finger-length ratio associated with prenatal testosterone → correlates with aggression.

Executive Functioning

Poor impulse control and planning predict greater aggression.

Reinforcement of Aggression

If aggression gets rewards (attention, dominance), it increases.

Corporal Punishment

Outcomes: Increased aggression, anxiety, antisocial behavior.

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

People learn aggression by observing and imitating.

Cycle of Violence

Children exposed to abuse → higher risk of becoming aggressive adults.

Honor Cultures & Machismo

Cultures emphasizing male reputation → greater aggression to defend honor.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

Blocked goals → frustration → aggression.

Heat & Aggression

High temperature increases irritability, hostile language, and violence.

Reducing Aggression

Communication training, empathy training, removal of triggers, higher punishment certainty.

Eyewitness Testimony

Often unreliable; memory is reconstructive.

Ronald Cotton Case

Example of mistaken eyewitness identification → wrongfully convicted.

Situational Factors

Poor lighting, long distance, short exposure reduce accuracy.

Alcohol & Memory

Alcohol intoxication impairs memory formation → more gaps & distortions.

Weapon-Presence Effect

Presence of a weapon draws attention away from perpetrator → poorer memory.

Cross-Race Identification Bias

People are better at identifying faces of their own race.

Car Accident Study

Leading questions influence memory: 'Hit' vs. 'smashed' changed speed estimates.

Issues With Artist Renderings

Sketches rely on memory + interpretation → often inaccurate.

Lineups

Foils: Innocent people included to prevent false identification.

Does Confidence Predict Accuracy?

Weak-to-moderate relationship; confidence can be inflated by feedback.

Polygraphs

Measure physiological arousal—not lies.