Psych- chapt. 2 → approaches to research

Quantitate research

The data gathered is numerical.

→ consist of experiments (lab, field, quasi and natural)

Qualitative research

Gathers participants’ experiences, perceptions, and behaviour

→ consists of interviews, observational studies, or case studies of a unique individual or group.

Experiments

Characteristic: Has an . independent variable and it measures the effects of a dependent variable

There are 4 types

• true

• Quasi

• Natural

• Field

True experiment

Used to show on not show a cause-and-effect relationship between 2 variables

Characteristics:

• random allocation is possible

• Extraneous variables ave controlled to establish casual relationships between IV and DV

• Conducted in highly controlled environments

Quasi experiments

Where participants cannot be randomly assigned to the IV

Characteristic:

• not all conditions of a true experiment can be met

• Cannot show a cause -and - effect relationship between variables just a correlation

• Researchers don't always have full experimental control over the IV as they are not manipulated directly

Natural experiment

Take place under natural conditions.

Characteristics:

• naturally occurring IV

• No manipulated IV

Field experiment

Conducted in a natural setting ‘in the field’

Characteristics:

• IV is manipulated and measured in a naturalistic (field) setting

Correlational studies

Test the relationship between 2 variables of interest. The correlation is expressed as a number between -1 ( a - correlation) and +1 ( a + correlation)

Characteristics:

• No IV is manipulated - just observation of existing relationships

• Often information is gathered through observations of what people already do

• Correlation does not imply causation

Naturalistic observations

Used to collect data as a stand alone method or to gather additional data as part of an experiment / case study.

Characteristics:

• Done in a natural setting

• Has no interference → can be done either covertly or overtly

Case studies

Examples of research into a particular individual, group of people, or organisation.

Characteristics:

• Provide a more detailed and holistic analysis of behaviour

• Require a lengthier period of time to carry out

• Findings are typically not generalisable, but can provide detailed context-rich insights

• Focus on going a deep understanding of a specific case

Interview

A self-report method as they rely on verbally communicated data from participants.

There are three ways researchers can obtain their data; unstructured, semi-structured, and focus groups.

Characteristics:

• provide in-depth data on participants perspectives

• Can be influenced by social desirability or interviewer effects

• Requires transcription and thematic analysis

Unstructured interviews

When researchers wish to have a conversational interview where questions are guided by the convo.

Characteristics:

• Interviewees reveal move about themselves

• Interview schedule only specifies the topic and available time.

Semi-structured interviews

A list of pre-set questions is posed to the participants but the opportunity to ask further questions is built into the procedure

Characteristics:

• Like an informal conversation following a schedule of topics to cover

• Involves open ended questions for interviewees to answer further and also interviewers can ask additional questions.

Focus groups interviews

An additional option for gaining self - report data in a group situation when it is felt that one-to-one interviews may not be as productive in gathering information

Characteristics:

• Researcher talks to a group at the same time. Group must be representative of a larger population, so there will be diversity

• Uses an interview agenda in order to guide the discussion on a particular issue or subject.

Surveys /questionnaires

Alternative self-report technique which can be conducted on a large sample & gathers more substantial amounts of data.

Characteristics:

• May combine quantitative data with qualitative data or only use quantitative

• Often use closed questions to collect data.

• Distributed widely, reaching large samples

• Open-minded questions allow av qualitative, detailed data.

Random sampling

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

Characteristic:

• Reduces bias

• Requires a complete list of the population

• Often used in quantitative research

• Procedure is to use a table of random numbers, a computer random number generator or a mechanical device to select the sample

Stratified sampling

Dividing the population into sub-groups based on certain characteristics and randomly selecting participants from each group.

Characteristics:

• Ensures representation of subgroups

• Time - consuming & requires detailed population knowledge.

Cluster sampling

Dividing the endive population into clusters and randomly selecting whole dusters

Systemic sampling

Selecting every nth person from a list of the target population

Characteristics:

• Quick & easy

• Can still be biased if the list has a pattern

Opportunity (convenience) sampling

Selecting participants who are easiest to access

Characteristics:

• Quick, inexpensive, and practical

• High risk of bias and limited generalizability

Purposive sampling

Selecting participants based on specific characteristics relevant to the study

Characteristics:

• Focused on participants with specific traits, experiences, or expertise

• Ensures depth but not breadth

Informed consent

Participant must agree to take part, fully understanding the purpose and procedure of the study

Right to withdraw

Participants can leave the study at any time without any consequences, removing their data along with the

Confidentiality

Personal information must be kept private and secure

Protection from harm

Researchers must minimize physical, emotional, or psychological harm

Debriefing

Participants must be informed about the true nature of the study afterwards, especially if deception was used.

Deception

If used, must be justified, not cause harm, and participants must be debriefed afterwards

Voluntary participation

No coercion - participants must be entirely voluntary

Anonymity

Data should not be linked to the participants’ identity unless agreed upon

Credibility

The extend to which the research findings are believable and accurate in representing participants’ perspectives

Bias

Any factor that distorts or skews the data or its interpretations, often introduced by the researcher or participants

Researcher bias

When the researcher act differently towards participants, which may influence or alter the participants behaviour. Be confirmation bias on gender bias.

→Researchers should be trained to minimize such bias.

→ (in Qualitative research) the researcher must also address personal bias in relation to the study and should apply reflexivity to control this.

Participant bias

When participants act according to how they think the researchers may wand them to act. OR they present themselves in a positive way.

→ social desirability effect = when participants fabricate their responses in order to look better.

Sampling bias

When the sample is not representative of the target population, therefore research can be restricted in how far it is generaliseable to the wider population

Can limit the credibility and transferability because the results may not accurately reflect the experiences or perspectives of the broader population

Personal reflexivity

The researcher reflects on how their personal beliefs, values, experiences, or relationship with participants might influence the research process and findings.

Epistemological reflexivity

The researcher reflects on the methods, theoretical framework, and assumptions they've used in the study, questioning whether these influenced the findings or limited the depth of understanding.

Generalizability

In quantitative research, the extent to which findings can be applied to the broader population. This depends on large, random, representative samples.

→To address lack of generalisation, studies could be repeated with a variety of different groups within a target population

Transferability

In qualitative research, the extent to which findings are applicable to similar contexts or groups outside of the study. This relies on rich descriptions of the context and participants

Triangulation

An approach used to ensure enough evidence is available to make a valid claim about the result of a study.

Methodological triangulation

• Using multiple methods (eg. Interviews + observations + questionnaires)

• Helps prevent bias from relying on just one method, which might have limitations or blind spots

Data triangulation

• Collecting data from multiple sources (eg. Different groups, time, or places)

• Helps prevent sampling bias by ensuring that the findings aren't overly influenced by one specific group or context.

Researcher triangulation

• Involving multiple researchers in data collection and analysis

• Helps prevent researcher bias because different perspectives reduce the risk of one person's assumptions dominating the interpretations of the data.

Theoretical triangulation

• Using multiple theories to interpret data

• Helps prevent confirmation bias by encouraging researchers to consider alternative explanations or frameworks.