Dirk's Taxonomy exam

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What is taxonomy (narrow sense)?

Taxonomy is the part of systematics that deals with identification of specimens, classification of taxa into a hierarchy, and application of scientific names according to formal rules.

What is systematics?

Systematics is the science of biological diversity and evolutionary relationships; it includes taxonomy, phylogenetics, and biogeography.

Why is species description still necessary?

Only a small fraction of existing species has been described, total species likely number in the millions to tens of millions, and new species continue to be discovered even in well‑studied regions and groups.

Outline the main steps in describing a new species.

1) Discover and recognize potentially new material 2) Search the literature 3) Examine collections and types 4) Prepare description, diagnosis, and other sections 5) Choose and form the name 6) Publish according to the Code.

What is the purpose of the literature search in species description?

To find previous descriptions and revisions, compare the new taxon with known species, and demonstrate that it has not already been named.

Why are museum collections important for taxonomy?

Collections hold type material and comparative specimens, which are essential for checking identities, assessing variation, and anchoring names to physical specimens.

Define holotype.

The holotype is the single name‑bearing specimen designated as the type of a species in the original description.

Define paratype.

Paratypes are specimens cited in the original description in addition to the holotype; they are part of the type series but are not name‑bearing types.

Define lectotype.

A lectotype is a specimen later selected from the syntype series to serve as the single name‑bearing type when no holotype was originally designated.

Define neotype.

A neotype is a specimen designated as the name‑bearing type when all original type material has been lost or destroyed, under strict conditions of the Code.

What is a voucher specimen?

A voucher is a well‑documented specimen (or set of specimens) deposited in a collection to document identifications and allow later verification, often for ecological or molecular studies.

Difference between diagnosis and description.

A diagnosis is a brief statement of characters that distinguish a taxon from related taxa; a description is a fuller account of morphology and other traits, not necessarily unique.

What is a synonymy in a taxonomic paper?

A synonymy is the list of all scientific names and combinations that have been applied to the taxon, with references to their original sources.

What information is usually included in a species “material examined” section?

Details such as locality, date, collector, collection codes, and specimen counts for the holotype, paratypes, and additional examined material.

What is the function of the discussion section in a species description?

It compares the species with close relatives, justifies taxonomic decisions, comments on variation, and may discuss phylogenetic or biogeographic implications.

State de Queiroz’s general lineage concept of species.

Species are separately evolving metapopulation lineages; traditional species concepts mainly differ in which diagnostic properties of these lineages they emphasize.

Under the general lineage concept, what role do criteria like reproductive isolation or monophyly play?

They are secondary properties and lines of evidence for separately evolving lineages, not the defining essence of species.

Define the Biological Species Concept.

Under the Biological Species Concept, species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.

Give one strength and one limitation of the Biological Species Concept.

Strength: directly links species to gene flow and reproductive isolation in sexual organisms. Limitation: difficult to apply to asexuals, fossils, and allopatric populations.

Give a diagnosability‑based phylogenetic species definition.

A species is the smallest diagnosable cluster of organisms within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent.

Give a monophyly‑based phylogenetic species definition.

A species is the smallest monophyletic group of common ancestry recognized in a phylogeny.

Define the morphological (phenetic) species concept.

Species are groups of individuals that are overall morphologically similar to each other and distinct from other such groups.

Define the ecological species concept.

A species is a lineage (or close set of lineages) occupying a distinct ecological niche or adaptive zone.

What is meant by “homology” in phylogenetics?

Homology is similarity of characters due to common ancestry, as opposed to convergent similarity or reversal.

Define synapomorphy.

A synapomorphy is a shared derived character state that diagnoses a monophyletic group (clade).

Define monophyletic, paraphyletic, and polyphyletic.

Monophyletic: group includes a common ancestor and all its descendants; Paraphyletic: ancestor plus some but not all descendants; Polyphyletic: taxa grouped without their most recent common ancestor.

What is the main purpose of the ICZN?

The ICZN provides rules for zoological nomenclature to promote stability, universality, and uniqueness of animal names; it does not regulate taxonomy or phylogeny.

What is an “available name” under the ICZN?

An available name is one that has been published according to the Code’s criteria (valid publication, correct form, required accompanying information) and can enter into homonymy and priority.

What is a “valid name” under the ICZN?

A valid name is the correct name for a taxon in a particular classification, usually the oldest available name after applying the rules of priority and other provisions.

State the Principle of Priority.

The valid name of a taxon is generally the oldest available name applied to it, unless that name has been invalidated or another name is given precedence under the Code.

What is a synonym in nomenclature?

Synonyms are different scientific names that refer to the same taxon; in general the oldest available synonym is the valid name.

What is a homonym in nomenclature?

Homonyms are identical names that refer to different taxa; usually the older name has precedence and any junior homonym must be replaced.

What is the “First Reviser” principle?

When two or more names or spellings were published simultaneously and precedence cannot be decided objectively, the first author who chooses between them in a later work acts as First Reviser and fixes precedence.

What is the purpose of reversal of precedence (nomen protectum / nomen oblitum)?

It allows a widely used younger name to be conserved over an older, unused name to maintain nomenclatural stability.

How are family‑group names formed under the ICZN?

They are formed from the stem of the type genus name plus a rank‑specific suffix: -oidea for superfamilies, -idae for families, -inae for subfamilies, -ini for tribes, and -ina for subtribes.

Give an example of forming a family name from a genus.

From the genus Coccinella (genitive Coccinellae, stem Coccinell-), the family name becomes Coccinellidae.

What is the capitalization rule for genus‑group and species‑group names?

Family‑group and genus‑group names begin with a capital letter, while species‑group epithets (specific and subspecific names) begin with a lower‑case letter.

What does the ICZN Preamble say about taxonomy vs nomenclature?

It states that the Code regulates only names and nomenclatural acts, while taxonomic judgments about taxa and their circumscription are outside its scope.

Summarize the “new taxonomy” vision in one sentence.

The new taxonomy calls for a revitalized, theory‑driven and integrative species‑level science that uses modern technologies while remaining grounded in morphology, collections, and phylogeny.

Why is the biodiversity crisis central to the “new taxonomy” discussion?

Because many species are likely to go extinct before being described or studied, making rapid but robust taxonomic exploration and documentation urgent.

According to the new taxonomy view, what is the role of natural history museums?

Museums provide essential infrastructure through curated collections and type material, which underpin taxonomic research and global species inventories.

How should molecular data be used in taxonomy according to integrative approaches?

Molecular data should complement, not replace, morphology, fossils, and other characters, contributing to a richer and more robust reconstruction of evolutionary history.

What are minimalist species descriptions?

Minimalist descriptions are very short species accounts, often for many taxa at once, based mainly on DNA barcodes and a few images, with limited morphological and comparative information.

Name one potential advantage of minimalist descriptions.

They can rapidly increase the number of nominal species, especially in hyperdiverse groups, and may help bring attention to poorly known faunas.

List two major criticisms of minimalist species descriptions.

They may fail to provide reliable diagnoses or adequate comparison with existing species, and they postpone the integrative taxonomic work to future revisions.

What is “turbo taxonomy” in a positive sense?

It is the use of templates, digital tools, and streamlined workflows to produce faster but still information‑rich, well‑diagnosed species descriptions and revisions.

Why is digitization of collections important for taxonomy?

Digitization of specimens, labels, and literature improves global access, increases efficiency, and enables large‑scale taxonomic and biodiversity analyses.

Why can digitization not replace physical specimens?

Physical specimens, especially types, are needed for detailed morphological study, application of new techniques, and definitive identity checks; images and sequences alone are insufficient.

List three typical short exam questions based on this material.

Examples: “Define holotype, lectotype, and neotype”; “Outline the steps in describing a new species”; “Compare the Biological and phylogenetic species concepts.”