Chapter 2 & 3: Placebo Effects, Ethics, Nervous System, and Brain Structures

Vocabulary flashcards covering placebo effects, ethical principles, and nervous system and brain anatomy and function.

Placebo

A substance that looks like a drug but has no real pharmacological effect.

Placebo effect

Change in participants' feelings, reactions, or behaviors caused by expectations when receiving an inert treatment.

Self-Report Distortions

Biases or errors that occur when people report their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Misunderstanding questionnaire items

Participants misinterpret items, leading to inaccurate responses.

Question order effects

The order of questions influences how people respond.

Social desirability bias

Tendency to give answers that are socially approved rather than true.

Halo effect

Overall positive or negative impression that spills over to influence specific ratings.

Experimenter bias

Researcher expectations or preferences that influence study outcomes.

Double-blind

A procedure in which neither participants nor experimenters know who is in the experimental or control group.

Deception in research

Withholding or misrepresenting information from participants to study effects.

Deception in research – arguments against

Equates to lying; potentially immoral; can harm trust and cause distress.

Deception in research – arguments for

White lies may be acceptable; empirical evidence can show benefits outweigh costs.

Ethical Principles in Research

Guidelines for conducting research with human participants.

Voluntary participation

Participation that is voluntary and can be withdrawn at any time.

Right to withdraw

Participants can leave a study at any point without penalty.

No harmful treatments

Participants should not be exposed to harmful or dangerous procedures.

Debriefing

If deception is used, participants should be informed about the true nature of the study afterward.

Right to privacy

Participants' privacy must be protected in research.

Neuron

Individual nerve cell that receives, integrates, and transmits information.

Soma

Cell body containing the nucleus and most of the chemical machinery.

Dendrite

Branched parts of a neuron that receive information from other neurons.

Axon

Long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma.

Myelin sheath

Insulating layer around some axons that speeds neural transmission.

Terminal button

Knobs at the end of axons that release neurotransmitters.

Synapse

Junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.

Synaptic transmission

Process of converting an electrical impulse to a chemical signal via neurotransmitter release.

Synaptic cleft

Microscopic gap between the terminal button and the postsynaptic membrane.

Resting potential

Stable negative charge of a neuron when it is inactive.

Neural impulse

Electrical signal that travels along a neuron when stimulated.

Postsynaptic potentials (PSP)

Voltage changes at a receptor site on the postsynaptic membrane; not all-or-nothing like action potentials.

Excitatory PSP

PSP that increases the likelihood the postsynaptic neuron will fire.

Inhibitory PSP

PSP that decreases the likelihood the postsynaptic neuron will fire.

Integration of signals

Neuron combines excitatory and inhibitory inputs to decide whether to fire.

Neural networks

Patterns of neural connectivity that underlie perception, thought, and action.

Plasticity

Brain's ability to change its structure and function with experience.

Neurogenesis

Process of generating new neurons in the adult brain.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter found throughout the nervous system; the transmitter between motor neurons and voluntary muscles.

Monoamines

Dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin—classes of neurotransmitters.

GABA

Gamma-aminobutyric acid; inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Endorphins

Internally produced opioids that resemble natural opiates.

Nerves

Bundles of neuron fibers in the peripheral nervous system.

CNS (central nervous system)

Brain and spinal cord; processes sensory information and coordinates responses.

Brain

Part of the CNS that processes information, stores memories, and generates thoughts and emotions.

Spinal cord

Connects the brain to the rest of the body and controls reflexes.

PNS (peripheral nervous system)

Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord; connect to muscles and sensory receptors.

Somatic nervous system

Subsystem that controls voluntary movements.

Autonomic nervous system

Subsystem that controls involuntary responses; includes sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Sympathetic division

Part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for emergencies (fight or flight).

Parasympathetic division

Part of the autonomic nervous system that conserves bodily resources (rest and digest).

Thalamus

Relay station for most sensory information to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

Regulates basic biological needs, internal state, emotion, and reward.

Limbic System

Brain regions that regulate emotion, memory, and endocrine function.

Amygdala

Limbic structure involved in emotion and survival-related processing.

Hippocampus

Region involved in the formation and recall of memories.

Cerebrum

Outer brain region responsible for complex thought; highly lateralized.

Corpus Callosum

Large bundle of fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres.

Occipital Lobe

Lobe responsible for vision and the visual cortex.

Parietal Lobe

Lobe that processes sensory information and spatial orientation.

Frontal Lobe

Lobe involved in planning, decision making, and motor control.

Temporal Lobe

Lobe involved in hearing, language, memory, and object recognition.

Lateralization

Each hemisphere of the brain specializes in different functions.

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of the brain where most higher-order processing occurs.

Lesioning

Destroying a piece of brain tissue to study function.

Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)

Using a weak electric current to activate a brain region.

CT Scan

Computerized tomography; computer-enhanced X-ray imaging of brain structure.

MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging; maps brain structure using magnetic fields and radio waves.

PET

Positron emission tomography; maps chemical activity in the brain using radioactive markers.

fMRI

Functional MRI; measures blood flow and oxygen use to image brain activity in 3D.

Hindbrain

Lower brain region containing medulla, pons, and cerebellum; basic life functions and coordination.

Medulla

Brainstem region that controls breathing, heart rate, and circulation.

Pons

Brainstem structure involved in arousal and connecting to the cerebellum.

Cerebellum

Brain region that coordinates balance and fine motor control.

Forebrain

Front brain region that includes sensory processing and higher cognitive functions.