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Steps of scientific method
The systematic process of inquiry including observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, data collection, and conclusion.
Independent variable
The variable in an experiment that is manipulated or changed to observe its effects on the dependent variable.
Dependent variable
The variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the impact of the independent variable.
Major elements of life
The primary elements essential for life include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
Atom
The basic unit of matter composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Atomic number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which determines the element's identity.
Isotopes
Variants of a particular chemical element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Properties of water
Unique characteristics including cohesion, adhesion, high specific heat, and solvent capabilities.
Chemical bonds
Forces that hold atoms together, including covalent bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds.
Four major groups of biological molecules
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, each with their own monomers and polymers.
Dehydration synthesis
A chemical reaction that involves the loss of water to form a bond between two molecules.
Hydrolysis
A chemical reaction that breaks down a compound by adding water.
Prokaryotic cells
Single-celled organisms without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, such as bacteria.
Eukaryotic cells
Organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
Plasma membrane
A lipid bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the interior of cells from the outside environment.
Endomembrane system
A system of membranes within eukaryotic cells that includes the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and vesicles.
Nucleus
The membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell's genetic material and controls cellular activities.
Potential energy
Stored energy in an object due to its position or arrangement.
Kinetic energy
The energy of an object in motion.
Law of conservation of energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change forms.
Entropy
A measure of disorder or randomness in a system, which tends to increase over time.
Enzymes
Proteins that act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions without being consumed.
Passive transport
Movement of molecules across cell membranes without energy input, including diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
Cellular respiration
The process of converting glucose and oxygen into energy (ATP), with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.
Aerobic respiration
Cellular respiration that requires oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration
Cellular respiration that occurs without oxygen.
Glycolysis
The first stage of cellular respiration that breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP.
Krebs cycle
A series of biochemical reactions that generates energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA.
Oxidative phosphorylation
The final stage of cellular respiration where ATP is produced using the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.
Photosynthesis equation
The process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen using sunlight.
Photosystem
A complex of proteins and pigments in the thylakoid membrane that captures light energy.
Light reactions
The first stage of photosynthesis that converts solar energy into chemical energy, producing ATP and NADPH.
Calvin cycle
The second stage of photosynthesis where ATP and NADPH are used to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
