The Baroque Era (ca. 1600~1750) pt. 2

Cantata (“to sing”)

A multi-movement choral work that can either be sacred or secular, written for vocal soloist(s) and chorus with instrumental accompaniment (orchestra). It consists of recitatives, arias, ensembles, and choruses.

Cantata (origins)

This genre began as a form of chamber music for solo voice with continuo, and was adopted into Lutheran services in the 18th century.

Johann Sebastian Bach composed over 300 works in this genre, with about 200 surviving.

Chorale

A hymn tune associated with German Protestantism, which is intended for congregational singing, and therefore moves predominantly by step or narrow leap. It has been used as the basis for many genres (including the cantata), was sometimes adapted from Gregorian chants and other popular sources, and (most famously) was harmonized for four voices (SATB) by composers, including Johann Sebastian Bach.

Canon (“law”)

A strict type of polyphonic composition, where each voice enters in succession on the same melody. When all are on the same pitch, it is referred to as a round.

Fugue (fugere, “to flee”)

A highly structured imitative contrapuntal composition that generally begins with successive entries of the subject in each voice, with a simple theme or subject prevailing throughout.

Ritornello

A recurring theme that functions as a refrain in Baroque compositions, and can serve both as an introduction and as a postlude in arias or choruses, and as a unifying thread in concertos.

Augmentation

A compositional procedure often used in fugal writing in which a theme is presented in longer time values, the melody often becoming twice as slow as the original.

arioso

A short vocal passage that is more lyrical than a recitative, but more modest in scale than an aria.

oboe da caccia

An alto oboe that is built in the shape of a curved hunting horn, but with a pear-shaped bell that gave the sound and outdoor quality.

oboe d’amore

A mezzo-soprano oboe that is pitched lower than a regular oboe and has a pear-shaped bell.

Taille

A tenor oboe with a pear-shaped bell.

Cantata No. 80, Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (1715)

A German chorale composed by J.S. Bach, based on a chorale by Luther and arranged by librettist Salomo Franck. The title translates to “A Mighty Fortress is Our God.” It is in 8 movements, and consists of SATB soloists, SATB chorus, strings, continuo, and pairs of oboes, with trumpets and drums added by Willhelm Friedman Bach.

This work exhibits a wide range of craftsmanship and artistry in its contrapuntal ingenuity, mastery of large architectural structures, vocal lyricism, and word painting, as well as Bach’s personal faith. Words are emphasized through melismatic text setting and chromatic harmony. The movements are ordered in a balanced structure.

concerto grosso

A Baroque orchestral work usually in 3 movements (fast-slow-fast) where a group of solo instruments called the concertino is showcased.

Concerto (concertare, “to debate or collaborate”, and “to reach agreement”)

A genre developed in 17th century, Italy, where it first began as a work for instruments and/or voices, based on the principle of contrast. The original use of the genre’s name was to refer to mixed vocal and instrumental ensembles, to differentiate from a cappella.

It is a multi-movement work for soloist(s) and orchestra that is generally in 3 movements (fast-slow-fast) in which the principle of contrast (between soloist(s) and orchestra) is exploited. In Baroque works of this genre, the outer movements usually employ ritornello form.

solo concerto

A Baroque orchestral work usually in 3 movements (fast-slow-fast) where a single soloist is showcased.

concertino

A small group of solo instruments featured in the concerto grosso of the Baroque era.

ripieno (“full” or “complete;” also tutti)

A term used to denote the use of the full orchestra in the Baroque concerto.

ritornello form

A structure often employed in the first and third movements of the Baroque concerto, where the opening passage is restated throughout the movement, serving as a refrain.

Brandenburg Concerto No. 2 in F Major (1721)

A concerto grosso, one of a set of six concertos, dedicated by their composer J.S. Bach, to the margrave of Brandenburg (who never arranged for their performance in his lifetime), which was written for string orchestra and continuo (which play the ripieno); and violin, oboe, recorder, and trumpet (which form the concertino).

This second Concerto has a bright cheerful Affect. The ritornello theme is made up of 4 motives, 1 and 3 built around outline of a tonic triad, and 2 and 4 characterized by scale-type movement. The concertino theme uses sequential imitation and modulates into every closely related key; the soloists take turns presenting the concertino theme, alternating with the ritornello theme. The melody used is often described as Fortspinnung, German for “spinning forward.”

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

Although best to known as an organist in his lifetime, this composer’s works represent the ultimate in Baroque craftsmanship (and the culmination of hundreds of years of polyphonic writing). He did not invent new forms, but perfected all existing ones, and was an especially great master of contrapuntal art, demonstrating ultimate control of polyphonic textures, employed in fugues and other genres (including choral works).

He had a cosmopolitan style of Italian (lyricism as an operatic arias and dynamic instrument control), French (dance rhythms, overtures, ornamentation), and English (choral style and dances). His large-scale works were arranged systematically, and he composed in “sets.” He wrote keyboard music for every level, and he wrote sacred works (chorales and cantatas) for the Lutheran Church- and even a Mass in B minor.

Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments (C. P. E. Bach) (1753)

An important primary source documenting Baroque performance practices, including keyboard performance and playing (fingering and figured bass), as well as chapters applying to all instruments (embellishments, improvisation, harmony and counterpoint; as well as general approaches to performance and musicianship).

This work was part of the “Age of Enlightenment,” when writers, philosophers, poets, and musicians sought to amass their knowledge systematically in written form.

Suite

A collection of stylized, contrasting dances (and other pieces) in the same key, which was cultivated in the Baroque era, written for a solo instrument or orchestral ensemble. The standard four dances are the allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue; while the additional movements may include an overture, prelude, menuet, passepied, bourrée, gavotte, aria, and others. The individual dances are generally written in binary form.

Suite (origins)

• Renaissance era: dances repaired to emphasize contrast (ex. pavane and galliard);

• Baroque era: this grouping evolved into the dance suite;

• France (17th century): the grouping of dances originated here, called ordre in reference to collections of dances in the same key;

• Germany (17th century): A standard order was established by Johann Jakob Froberger.

• Suites were composed for both solo keyboard and orchestra.

ordre

Suite (French)

agréments

A French term for an ornament or embellishment used in 17th- and 18th-century keyboard music.

notes inégales (“unequal notes”)

A performance practice associated with French music of the 17th and 18th centuries, where notes written with equal time values are performed unequally (most often lengthening the first in shortening the second), which is similar to the swinging eighth notes in jazz style.

double

A French term for an embellished version or variation of a dance or movement, performed as an alternative to the original during repeats or da capo/dal segno sections. Embellishments may be standard ornaments (trills, appoggiaturas, mordents), or melodic variations in an improvisatory style, expanding on the original material.

clavecin

Harpsichord (French)

Hornpipe

A lively, triple meter dance of English origin, originally associated with sailors.

Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764)

One of the most admired French composers of the late Baroque era, as well as a brilliant organist and harpsichordist, who developed the French keyboard suite, initially along traditional lines but then later by incorporating imaginative character pieces inspired by the suites of François Couperin.

The musical style of his keyboard texture features a strong harmonic direction, frequent use of seventh chords, clear modulation schemes, precisely notated embellishments (agréments), and an occasional use of counterpoint. He employed binary and rondeau forms, and his later keyboard works include virtuosic technical demands and formal procedures that show the influence of Handel and Scarlatti.

He was born in Dijon and in 1722 published his Traité de l’harmonie, establishing the groundwork for the study of functional harmony, a work which is still valid today.

La poule (from Nouvelle suites de pièces de clavecin) (ca. 1729)

A piece from a suite by Jean-Philippe Rameau, which was written for the harpsichord, is in binary form, and has playful and lively affect. The opening motive consists of a series of repeated notes which imitates the clucking of a hen. It is not a dance of traditional form, but, through this hen imagery, is a character piece.

Water Music Suite in D Major (1717)

An orchestral suite composed by Handel with a structure of 22 movements, arranged in 3 suites written for Baroque orchestra (strings, continuo, trumpets, horn, oboes, and bassoons).

Pre-Classical Style

A style change in the late Baroque era which consisted of a shift from dense polyphony to lighter homophony with delicate ornamentation, as well as the development of the sonata form, derived from rounded binary form.