Bio 100 Ch. 3 - Molecules of Life

3.1 - Building Big Molecules (Objective: Distinguish between a polymer and a monomer)

What are Anabolic Steroids?

a synthetic steroid hormone that resembles testosterone in promoting muscle growth. Such hormones are used medicinally to treat some forms of weight loss and (illegally) by some athletes and others to enhance physical performance.

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“anabolic” means “growth” or “building”

How do Anabolic Steroids work?

By signaling muscle cells to make more protein.

• By increasing protein production and inhibiting the breakdown of proteins in muscle cells after workouts, anabolic steroids significantly increase the mass of an athlete’s muscle tissue

What are the negative consequences of steroids?

• Can lead to premature termination of adolescent growth spurt

• Can lead to potentially fatal liver cysts or cancer

• Hypertension (promotes heart attack and stroke)

• Acne

Organisms contain many molecules from their __________ and what they __________

their surroundings and what they consume

Large molecules that are found in our food and make up the bodies of organisms are called _________ _________.

Organic molecules

Organic molecules are also called ______________ because they can be very large

Macromolecules

What are the big 4 organic molecules?

1. Proteins

2. Nucleic Acids

3. Carbohydrates

4. Lipids

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These 4 are building materials of cells

• the “bricks and mortar” that make up the body of a cell

A _________ is a large molecule made up of many repeating smaller units that are linked together chemically, essentially forming a chain.

The “repeating smaller units” are called __________, which is a single, small molecule that acts as a building block to create a larger polymer when multiple of these join together.

Polymer … Monomer

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Key points to remember: 

• "Mono" means one: A monomer is a single unit. 

• "Poly" means many: A polymer is made up of many monomers linked together. 

Example:

• Monomer: A single amino acid

• Polymer: A protein, which is a chain of many amino acids linked together. 

Macromolecules are assembled by

monomers/polymers

The four main macromolecules are built from different __________, but all have their subunits put together the same way.

monomers

Describe the process of Dehydration Synthesis

Dehydration synthesis unites two subunit molecules into one when a hydroxyl (OH) is removed from one of the subunits and a hydrogen (H) is removed from the other.

• The removal of OH and H constitutes the removal of a water molecule

  • Dehydration = “taking away water”

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Simply put, it is the combination of two molecules with the elimination of water molecules.

Dehydration Synthesis requires the help of a special class of proteins called __________.

Enzymes

Enzymes are what kind of macromolecule?

Protiens

Describe the process of Hydrolysis

It is the opposite of Dehydration Synthesis— instead of removing a water molecule to break down a molecule, water is added.

• Once the water molecule is added, hydrogen attaches to one subunit and hydroxyl to another—> this breaks the covalent bond, which breaks up the polymer.

Which macromolecule does this polymer belong to?

Protein

• Is built from amino acid monomers

  • Protein polymer is called a “polypeptide”

Which macromolecule does this polymer belong to?

Carbohydrate

• Is built from monosaccharide monomers

  • EX: starch molecule

Which macromolecule does this polymer belong to?

Nucleic Acid

• Is built from nucleotide monomers

  • EX: DNA strand

Which macromolecule does this polymer belong to?

Lipid

• Is built from fatty acids

  • EX: fat molecule

What is a Protein?

A long polymer chain made of subunits called amino acids that are linked end to end by peptide bonds.

One of the most important types of proteins are _________, which play a critical role in helping cells carry out particular chemical reactions

• EX: These help facilitate molecule positioning in dehydration synthesis to ensure the right ones are broken down

Enzymes

Proteins are Polymers made of _______ _________

Amino Acids

The carbon atom at the center of an amino acid (AA) is the core of an AA structure and is surrounded by these functional groups:

1. A(n) _______ group

2. A(n) _______ group

3. A variable side chain called a(n) ______ group that determines each amino acid’s chemical properties.

1. An Amino Group

2. A Carboxyl group

3. An R-group

What are two examples of structural proteins?

Keratin

• forms hair, nails, feathers, components of horns

Collagen

• Present in bones, tendons, and crtilage

The __________ of a protein is very important because it determines the protein’s function

shape

There are 4 general levels of protein structure— all are determined by the sequence of amino acids. What are they?

1. Primary → “beaded strand” of amino acids, linked by peptide bonds,

2. Secondary → twisting or pleating of the chain (due to formation of hydrogen bonds) → IS 2D

3. Tertiary → non-polar amino acids occur, more complex folding of structure → IS 3D → controls function of protein

4. Quaternary → Composed of more than one chain

   

What is “denaturation” of a protein?

Changes in a protein’s environment, such as variations in temperature or pH, can cause a protein to unfold and lose its shape in a process called “denaturation”.

• In this denatured state, proteins are biologically inactive

• When a protein is denatured, in most cases broken bonds will not readily reform

The _______ __________ shape od a protein determines its function.

three-dimensional

your body stores hereditary information and puts it to work by utilizing _______ ________, which are very long polymers that serve as the genetic information storage devices of cells; just as hard drives store the information that computers use.

Nucleic Acids

NUCLEIC ACIDS ARE LONG POLYMERS OF REPEATING SUBUNITS CALLED _____________

Nucleotides

What is a Nucleotide?

A single unit of nucleic acid

• They are sugars linked by phosphates

Each nucleotide is composed of 3 parts:

1. A Phosphate (PO₄) group → in yellow

2. A 5-carbon sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose) → in blue

3. An organic nitrogen-containing base → in orange

What are polynucleotide chains?

chains of nucleotides that are linked together by sugars and phosphates with a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases attached to the sugar molecules along the chain. 

Nucleic Acids come in two varieties:

1. _____________ ______

2. _____________ ______

1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

What is Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)?

The basic storage of heredity/genetic information. Info is stored in a linear sequence of nucleotides in a polymer.

• Two of the polymers wind around each other like the outside and inside rails of a circular staircase.

What is Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)?

RNA) is a class of nucleic acids that regulate and/or carry genetic information copied from DNA, primarily used to direct protein synthesis within the cell; RNA contains the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose, with the bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil instead of thymine;

What is the difference between RNA and DNA?

	DNA	RNA
Strand type Nitrogenous Base Contains Function Bonded by	Double       Thymine       Deoxyribose       Genetic code       H-Bonds	Single    Uracil    Ribose   Role in translation to proteins

What are complementary base pairs in DNA?

A + T → Adenine (A), Thymine (T)

C + G → Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) 

Polymers called ___________ make up the structural framework of certain cells and play a critical role in energy storage.

Carbohydrates

Define a Carbohydrate

Any molecule that contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio 1:2:1.

• May be small monomers— these are called simple carbohydrates ^{(our “simple sugars”)}

  • Monosaccharides

  • Disaccharides

• May be long polymers— these are called complex carbohydrates

  • Polysaccharides

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More in-depth definition: An organic compound consisting of a chain or ring of carbon atoms to which hydrogen and oxygen atoms are attached in a ratio of approximately 1:2:1. A compound of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen having the generalized formula (CH₂O)_n, where n is the number of carbon atoms.

The first type of simple carbohydrate is called M__________.

Monosaccharides

• From Greek monos (single) and saccharon (sweet)

Define what Monosaccharides are

A simple sugar with only one subunit

• Ex: Glucose → The sugar that carries energy to the cells of your body → (6 carbons, chemical formula C₆H₁₂O₆)

The second type of simple carbohydrate is D_____________.

Disaccharide

Define what a Disaccharide is

A simple sugar that is formed by linking two monosaccharide molecules ^{***glucose and fructose***} together

• Ex: Sucrose → table sugar → formed by linking a molecule of glucose to a molecule of fructose.

Monosaccharides and Disaccharides are both simple carbohydrates/sugars. What is the difference between the two?

Number of subunits:

• Monosaccharides: 1 subunit

• Disaccharides: 2 subunit

Organisms store their metabolic energy in _______________ formed from glucose

Polysaccharides

Define what a Polysaccharide is

A complex carbohydrate polymer composed of many monosaccharide sugar subunits linked together in a long chain.

Polysaccharides can be _________ or _____________ based

glucose or non-glucose based.

Sometimes Polysaccharides are , which means its molecular chain has side branches extending off the main chain, creating a more complex structure with multiple points of attachment for other molecules.

branched

• Ex: Starch, Chitin, Cellulose, Glycogen

Below are certain functions of carbohydrates concerning energy. List the carbohydrates that match each function listed below:

1. Release (Monosaccharides) → _____________________

2. Transport (Disaccharides) → _______________________

3. Storage (Polysaccharides) → _____________________

4. Structural (Polysaccharides) → ______________________

1. Release (Monosaccharides) → GLUCOSE

2. Transport (Disaccharides) → LACTOSE, SUCROSE

3. Storage (Polysaccharides) → GLYCOGEN, STARCHES

4. Structural (Polysaccharides) → CELLULOSE, CHITIN

fats and other molecules that are not soluble in water (don’t dissolve in water) are called _________

Lipids

Define what Lipids are

A group of molecules that are insoluble in water but soluble in oil.

• Hydrophobic

• Are long chains of C & H called fatty acids

  • Ex: Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Steroids, and Chlorophyll

  • Ex: OILS → Olive, Corn, and Coconut

  • Ex: WAXES → Beeswax and Earwax

• Is the most common molecule in human body

Fat molecules are lipids composed of two kinds of subunits:

1. ______ _______

2. ___________

1. Fatty Acids

2. Glycerol

Define what a Fatty Acid is

A long chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms

Define what a Glycerol is

Contains 3 carbons and forms the backbone to which 3 fatty acids are attached through dehydration reactions

• Saturated (single bond) vs Unsaturated (double bond)

What are Triglycerides?

A type of fat (lipid) that contains glycerol and three fatty acids attached to glycerol backbone

• Saturated and Unsaturated

Fats whose fatty acid chains are composed of the maximum number of hydrogen atoms are said to be ___________

Saturated

• Single-bond

• Ex: Animal fats

Saturated fats are _______ at room temperature

solid

Fats composed of fatty acids with double bonds between one or more pairs of carbon atoms contain fewer than the maximum number of hydrogen atoms and are called _______________

Unsaturated

• Double-bond

• Ex: Plant fats

Unsaturated fats are _________ at room temperature

liquid

What are Phospholipids?

A type of fat (lipid) that contains two fatty acids and one phosphate attached to glycerol backbone

• Symbol: PO₄

• Are Hydrophilic (love water)

What are some of the lipid functions?

Triglycerides:

• Energy storage

• Padding & Insulation

Hormones, Pigments:

• Signaling

• Light capture (specific to pigment)

Phospholipids:

• Cell membrane structure

Cholesterol

• Membrane stabilization

• Liver produces Cholesterol

Proteins are made up of…

amino acids