Digestive System, Genetics, Photosynthesis, Carbon Cycle, and Taxonomy - Vocabulary Flashcards

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering digestion, genetics, photosynthesis, the carbon cycle, and taxonomy based on the lecture notes.

Ingestion

Taking food into the body.

Mechanical digestion

Physical breakdown of food (e.g., chewing, stomach churning) into smaller particles.

Chemical digestion

Breaking down complex molecules (proteins, starch, fats) into soluble molecules using enzymes.

Absorption

Nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream from the gut lining.

Assimilation

Nutrients are used by cells for energy, growth, and repair.

Elimination

Removal of waste products from the body as feces.

Mouth

The entry point of the digestive system where mechanical and chemical digestion begins.

Pharynx

Common passage for food and air; helps move swallowed material to the esophagus.

Esophagus

connects mouth to stomach; uses peristaltic movements to push food downward.

Peristalsis

Coordinated wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract.

Stomach

Organ where food is liquefied and forms chyme.

Chyme

Partially digested, liquefied food in the stomach.

Small intestine

Main site of digestion and absorption; consists of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

Duodenum

First section of the small intestine where most chemical digestion occurs.

Jejunum

Section of the small intestine where the majority of nutrient absorption takes place.

Ileum

Final section of the small intestine; important for absorption of bile acids and vitamin B12.

Intestinal juice

Secretions in the small intestine that aid digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

Villi

Tiny projections in the small intestine that increase surface area for absorption.

Large intestine

Absorbs water and mineral salts from undigested material.

Liver

Organ that produces bile, which emulsifies fats.

Bile

Digestive fluid that emulsifies fats to aid digestion.

Gallbladder

Stores bile and releases it into the small intestine as needed.

Pancreas

Gland that releases digestive enzymes into the small intestine.

Enzymes

Biological molecules (often proteins) that catalyze digestive reactions.

Rectum

End section of the large intestine where feces are stored before elimination.

Anus

Opening at the end of the digestive tract through which feces exit.

Intestinal surface area

Large surface area created by folds and villi to maximize absorption.

Ingestion

Taking food into the body.

Heredity

Study of how genes carry characteristics from parents to offspring.

Variation

Differences in genetics and traits among individuals of the same species.

Gregor Mendel

Father of genetics; founded principles of heredity using pea plants.

Allele

Different forms of a gene that determine a specific trait.

Monohybrid Inheritance

Genetic cross involving one trait controlled by a single gene pair.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism (combination of alleles, e.g., TT, Tt, tt).

Phenotype

The observable physical trait or characteristic (e.g., Purple).

Dominant allele

Allele that is expressed in the phenotype when present.

Recessive allele

Allele that is masked by a dominant allele unless paired with another recessive.

Punnett Square

A diagram used to predict the genotypes of offspring from parental crosses.

Homozygous Dominant

Two dominant alleles for a gene (PP).

Heterozygous Dominant

One dominant and one recessive allele (Pp).

Rule of Unit Factors in Pair

Traits are controlled by paired factors (genes) that segregate during gamete formation.

Principle of Dominance

In crossing, the dominant trait is expressed while the recessive is hidden.

Law of Segregation

During meiosis, gene pairs separate so each gamete carries one allele for each trait.

Law of Independent Assortment

Alleles of different genes separate independently during gamete formation.

Monohybrid Cross

Cross between two organisms focusing on one trait.

Co-dominance

Both alleles in a heterozygote are expressed (e.g., AB blood).

Incomplete Dominance

Heterozygous phenotype is a blend of the two traits.

Multiple Alleles

More than two allele forms exist for a gene, increasing phenotypic variety.

Polygenic Traits

Traits controlled by many genes, producing wide variation (e.g., height, skin color).

Photosynthesis

Process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose) using CO2 and H2O.

Light-Dependent Reactions

Stage of photosynthesis that occurs in the thylakoids; produces ATP and NADPH and releases O2.

Calvin Cycle/Light-Independent Reactions

Stage in the stroma that uses ATP and NADPH to synthesize glucose from CO2.

Chloroplast

Organelle where photosynthesis takes place.

Chlorophyll

Green pigment that absorbs light for photosynthesis.

Thylakoids

Flattened discs in chloroplasts where light-dependent reactions occur.

Stroma

Fluid inside chloroplasts surrounding thylakoids; site of the Calvin Cycle.

Stomata

Pores on the leaf underside that regulate gas exchange (CO2 intake, water loss).

ATP

Energy- carrying molecule produced during photosynthesis (and cellular respiration).

NADPH

Electron carrier synthesized in light-dependent reactions; used in the Calvin Cycle.

CO2

Carbon dioxide, a raw material for photosynthesis.

H2O

Water, a raw material for photosynthesis.

Glucose

Sugar produced during photosynthesis; energy source for the plant.

Respiration

Process of producing ATP by breaking down glucose, often with oxygen.

Mitochondria

Organelle where cellular respiration occurs; the powerhouses of the cell.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate; main energy currency of the cell.

Carbon Cycle

Natural cycle of carbon through the atmosphere, organisms, and Earth.

Atmosphere/Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Gas in the air that is incorporated into photosynthesis and released by respiration.

Consumption

Transfer of carbon as organisms eat or absorb organic matter.

Death and Decomposition

Breakdown of organisms releasing carbon back to the environment.

Fossilization

Formation of fossil fuels; long-term storage of carbon.

Combustion

Burning of organic matter releasing CO2 and energy.

Binomial Nomenclature

Two-name naming system in Latin: genus capitalized, species lowercase.

Genus

First part of a species’ scientific name; capitalized.

Species

Second part of a species’ scientific name; lowercase.

Aristotle

Early classifier who split organisms into plants and animals, with red blood vs. no red blood.

Linnaeus

Father of taxonomy; classification based on morphology and behaviour; developed binomial nomenclature.

Carl Woese

Proposed the three-domain system, influencing the six-kingdom model.

Three Domains

Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.

Six Kingdom System

Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea, and Bacteria.

Domain

Higher-level taxonomic category above kingdom.

Kingdom

Major classification level within a domain; e.g., Animalia, Plantae.

Archaea

Single-celled prokaryotes that thrive in extreme environments.

Bacteria

Single-celled prokaryotes found almost everywhere; have peptidoglycan in cell walls.

Eukarya

Organisms with eukaryotic cells (plants, animals, fungi, protists).

Protista

Diverse eukaryotic group not fitting into other kingdoms.