biology unit one

organic chemistry

the study of compounds containing carbon

Stanley Miller

chemist that found that organic compounds could have formed through abiotic synthesis under conditions found on early Earth

hydrocarbon

molecules made of only carbon and hydrogen

isomers

molecules that have the same number of elements in different structures

structural isomers

molecules that differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms

cis-trans isomers

molecules that differ in arrangements around a double bond

enantiomers

isomers that are mirror images of each other, but differ due to an asymmetrical carbon

functional groups

chemical groups that are directly involved in chemical reactions

hydroxyl group

-OH

carbonyl group

>C=O

carboxyl group

-COOH

amino group

-NH₂

sulfhydryl group

-SH

prefix for a molecule with one carbon atom

meth

prefix for molecule with two carbon atoms

eth

prefix for molecule with three carbon atoms

prop

prefix for molecule with four carbon atoms

but

prefix for molecule with five carbon atoms

pent

prefix for molecule with six carbon atoms

hex

suffix for organic molecules with only single bonds

ane

suffix for organic molecules with at least one double bond

ene

suffix for organic molecules with at least one triple bond

yne

prefix for molecule with carbons arranged in a ring

cyclo

phosphate group

-OPO₃^2-

methyl group

-CH₃

adenosine triphosphate

three phosphate groups attached to a molecule of adenosine that provide energy for the cell

macromolecules

large molecules

polymers

a large molecule consisting of multiple repeating units

monomers

small units that build polymers

enzymes

specialized molecules (usually proteins) that speed up chemical reactions

condensation reaction

a reaction that covalently bonds two monomers together with the loss of a small molecule

dehydration reaction

a type of condensation reaction in which a water molecule is lost

hydrolysis

a process in which water breaks a polymer into monomers

carbohydrates

sugars and polymers made of sugar. Serves as fuel and building material for cells

monosaccharides

monomers from which complex carbohydrates are built. Has a carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups.

disaccharides

two monosaccharides linked by a glycosidic linkage

glycosidic linkage

a covalent bond between monosaccharides formed by a dehydration reaction

polysaccharides

polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds

starch

a helical polysaccharide for energy storage in plants

glycogen

a branching polysaccharide for energy storage in animals

cellulose

a polysaccharide for structural materials in plants

chitin

the polysaccharide used by arthopods to build their exoskeletons

Sugars

compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio

aldose sugars

sugars with a c=o bond at the end

ketose sugars

sugars with a c=o bond in the middle

lipids

hydrophobic molecules that are not polymers. Long term energy storage for cells.

fat

a glycerol molecule joined by three fatty acids

fatty acids

a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain attached to a glycerol head

glycerol head

3 carbons attached to hydroxyl groups. One head per tail.

ester linkage

the bonding of carboxylic acid to an alcohol through a dehydration reaction

Saturated fatty acid

a fatty acid without double bonded carbons and many hydrogen atoms bonded to its carbon chain

unsaturated fatty acids

a fatty acid with one or more double bonded carbon atoms

hydrogenation

the process of adding hydrogen atoms to an unsaturated fat

trans fats

unsaturated fats with trans double bonds

phospholipid

a molecule with two non-polar fatty acids attached to a polar phosphate group

steroid

an organic compound with four fused carbon rings that acts as a signaling molecule.

Cholesterol

a steroid that is part of cell membranes and many other biologically important steroids

catalysts

chemical agents that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed

polypeptide

a polymer of amino acids

peptide bond

when the carboxyl group of an amino acid is joined to the amino group of another through a dehydration reaction

sickle-cell disease

an inherited disorder that substitutes valine instead of glutamic acid in the structure of hemoglobin, causing cells to become sickle shaped.

denaturation

when elements of a protein’s environment cause it to lose its shape

x-ray crystallography

a method using the diffraction of x-rays to determine a molecule’s 3d structure.

amino acid

an organic structure with an amino group and a carboxyl group

nucleic acid

polymers made of nucleotide monomers

polynucleotide

a chain of nucleotides

pyrimidine

a six membered carbon ring (cytosine, thymine, uracil)

purine

a six membered carbon ring fused to a five membered carbon ring (adenine, guanine)

deoxyribose

sugar found in DNA

ribose

sugar found in RNA

bioinformatics

the use of computer software to analyze genetic data

positive control

a sample that is known to possess the substance you’re testing for

negative control

a sample that is known not to possess the substance that you’re testing for

Biosphere

All life on Earth

Ecosystems

All living things in an area plus the non-living components of the environment

Communities

Organisms within an environment without the abiotic factors.

Populations

All of the individuals of a species within an area.

Organisms

Individual living things

Organs

A body part that is made of multiple tissues and performs a specific function.

Tissues

A group of cells that work together to perform a function

Cells

Life’s fundamental unit

Organelles

Functional components of cells

Molecules

A chemical structure of two or more atoms

Reductionism

An approach that simplifies complex systems into small components

Emergent Properties

Properties that appear while moving up the hierarchy of life

Systems Biology

The exploration of a biological system by analyzing interactions among its parts.

Eukaryotic Cells

Cells that have membrane-bound organelles

Prokaryotic Cells

Cells that lack a nucleus or other enclosed organelles

Ribosomes

Organelles responsible for the production of proteins

Cytosol

The fluid inside of cells

Chromosomes

Structures that contain DNA

DNA

The genetic material of a cell

Genes

the unit of inheritance

Dogma of Molecular Biology

DNA-mRNA-Protein

Genome

The entirety of genes in an organism

Genomics

The study of genes

Proteomics

The study of proteins

Proteome

All proteins in an organism

Producers

Organisms that produce their own energy