Biology Final Exam Study Guide (Semester 2 - Spring 2024)

Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen Bonds

Creates Hydrogen Bonds

Intermolecular Force

Fore that acts between molecules (makes water stick together)

Cohesion

Water sticks to water (be of H-bonds)

Adhesion

Water sticks to other things (bc of H-bonds)

Adhesion

Water beads on glass

Capillary action

Water travels against gravity up a tube

Surface tension

Resistance to external force

Evaporative cooling

reduction in temperature resulting from the evaporation of a liquid, which removes latent heat from the surface from which evaporation takes place.

Evaporative cooling examples

• cool coastal weather in summer

• Takes a long time to boil a pot of water

• cooling effect of sweating

Solvent

Thing that does the dissolving

Solute

Thing that is dissolved

The Universal Solvent

Power to dissolve any ionic or polar compound (most things on earth)

Monomer

Building blocks (pieces) of polymers

Polymer

all the monomers (pieces) together

Macro

Large

4 macro-molecules/polymers

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

Macro-molecule elements

• Carbon

• Hydrogen

• Oxygen

• Nitrogen

• Phosphorus

• Sulfur (sometimes)

Carbohydrate elements

Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen (CHO)

Monomer in Carbs

Monosaccharide

3 types of carbs

• Monosaccharides

• Disaccharides

• Polysaccharides

Glucose

Main energy source for cells (brain)

Fructose

fruit

Galactose

Dairy (in milk)

Disaccharide

Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide =

sucrose

glucose + fructose =

Polysaccharides

Complex

Glycogen

Stored glucose energy in animal muscles

Starch

store glucose energy in plants

Cellulose/Fiber

Large Polysaccharides in plants

Low Density Lipoprotein

LDL

High Density Lipoprotein

HDL

Lipid Elements

Carbon, Hydrogen, + Oxygen

Lipids

Fats, Oils, Waxes, Steroids

Lipid Monomers

Glycerol + Fatty Acids

Saturated Fat

Solid at room temp.

Unsaturated Fat

Liquid at room temp.

Trans Fat

Chemically altered liquid oils - solid fats

Steroids

Basically lipids in rings instead of chains

Steroid Function

Work as hormones, help cells communicate

Protein Elements

Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, + Nitrogen

Polypeptide

Chain of amino acids

Protein food sources

• Meat (beef, chicken, turkey)

• Fish & Seafood

• Nuts & Beans

• Eggs (specifically the egg white)

• Dairy

Primary Structure

Chain of amino acids (polypeptide chain)

Secondary Structure

Folds into alpha helix or beta pleated sheet

Tertiary Structure

Folds up into more complex 3D bundled structure

Quaternary Structure

More than one tertiary structure combines together from the final protein

Enzymes

Biological catalyst (help reactions happen!)

Hormones

Sends chemical signals to cells through the bloodstream

Defense

Make up antibodies which fight off bacteria + viruses in the body

Movement

Make up the structure of muscles allowing them to move

Nucleic Acid Elements

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, + Phosphorus

Monomer in Nucleic Acid

Nucleotide

Nucleic Acid Function

Has genetic information to make proteins by which living things function. This info is passed from cell to cell

Active Site

Site on the surface of enzymes where substrate binds & the action happens, and product forms!

Substrate

Thing being acted upon

Induced Fit Theory

1. Substrate attaches to enzyme’s active site

2. Substrate helps change shape of enzyme

3. Enzyme shape changes reducing activation energy

main enzymes function

1. Break down polymers into monomers

2. Bond monomers together to form polymers

Denaturing

Something causes the protein to change shape/unfold, losing its function

Heat, change in pH level, or salt.

Causes for Denaturing

Virus

An infectious agent made of DNA or RNA wrapped in a protein coat called a capsid

Bacteriophage

Viruses that infect bacteria

Capsid

Protein Coat

Animal Viruses

• Capsid

• Have surface proteins

• Contains RNA or DNA

Airborne

Carried on droplets through air + come in contact with a person’s eyes, mouth, nose, or lungs

Examples of Airborne illnesses

Common, Cold, Influenza, Coronavirus

Foodborne

Pathogen carried on food + once ingested infects the host

Examples of Foodborne illnesses

Hepatitis A (fecal/oral transmission)

Protein Synthesis

The “Central Dogma” of molecular Biology

RNA

Ribonucleic acid, made of nucleotides

Transcription

DNA → mRNA in the nucleus

Genes

Section of DNA

Translation

RNA → Protein

Codons

Sequences of mRNA

Anticodons

Codons match up with these…

Polypeptide chain

When amino acids connect with peptide bonds

Methonine

Always the first amino acid

Mutation

Any change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell’s DNA

Substitution

A nucleotide with a specific base is replaced with a nucleotide with a different base

Frameshift

A nucleotide is added or removed, shifting the reading frame of ALL the nucleotides + their bases

Insertion

1 nucleotide is added

Deletion

1 nucleotide is removed

Meiosis

Cell division to produce new gametic cells (1 cell → 4 cells)

23

How many somatic cells do humans have?

Meiosis 1 & Meiosis II

What are the two divisions of Meiosis?

Meiosis I

• Homologous pairs separate

• At end of meiosis I the two cell are haploid

Meiosis II

Sister chromatids break at centromere separate + 4 haploid gametes form

Genetic variation

What does meiosis create?

Reasons for Genetic Variation

1. Crossing over during Prophase 1 increases genetic diversity as the genes combine in different ways

2. Chromosomes can assort with different combinations to make unique gametes

3. Random fertilization → egg (n) + sperm (n) = 2n

Karyotype

a picture of your chromosomes

autosomes

What are the first 22 pairs of chromosomes called?

XX

genetic female

XY

genetic male

Trisomy

Extra chromosome

Monosomy

Missing chromosome

Heredity

Passing of traits from parents to offspring

Genetics

Scientific study of heredity

Alleles

Alternative forms of a gene

Dominant

Only need one to look dominant (capital letter of trait)

Recessive

Shown when both copies are present (lower-case letter of dominant trait)

Genotype

The 2 genes (letters) from mom & dad