Japan, leaders, general terms

Chiang Kaishek

Leader of Chinese Nationalist party

opposed to fighting the Japanese in 1920 and 1930

wanted to exterminate communists

forced to unite with communist China in 1936 (war with Japan followed quickly after)

General MacArthur

Commander and chief of the US in the Far East

After the war became the supreme commander for the allied powers

In charge of the allied occupation of Japan

Dismissed by president Truman in 1951 due to conflict about Korea

Konoe

Prince who served as prime minister with 3 different cabinets between June 1937 to October 1941

Lead Japan into war with China in 1937

Resigned the premiership in 1941 rather than lead Japan against US

Committed suicide in Dec 1945

Tojo

Graduated military academy

supported Japan’s aggressive policy toward China

member of Tosei Faction

Believed war with US was inevitable

served as Prime Minister of Japan during World War II after serving as war minister for Konoe,

oversaw Japan's military operations.

Forced out of office in July 1944

Zhang Xueliang

The young Marshal

son of Manchurian war lord Zhang Zuolin

Joined Chiang Kaisheks forces after his father was assassinated by Japan

Participated in the kidnapping of Chiang Kaishek to force him into uniting with the communists against Japan

Yamamoto Isoroku

Admiral and chief architect of the pearl harbor and midway attacks

was a highly respected military leader and strategist

killed by US in 1943

After his death Japan struggled with planning and morale

Kita Ikki

Leading philosopher of the ultra nationalist movement

Wrote a book about the organic unity of people and the emperor

Wanted a violent coup and the restoration of imperial rule

His ideas played a big role in the February 26 1936 incident and was later executed for his involvement

Ishiwara Kanji

Lieutenant-Colonel in Kwantung army during the manchurian incident

Played major role in carrying out the Manchurian incident resulting in Japan’s control over Manchuria

Anti Com intern Pact

Mutual Exchange that Japan and Germany agreed to of information about calm and turn and in agreement to work together to limit its effect. 

a secret protocol stipulated that if either nation was attacked by the Soviets the other would refrain from any activities that would help the Soviets.

Article 9

In the post-war 1947 Japanese Constitution it declared that the Japanese people forever renounce War as a sovereign right. This peace clause was promoted by General MacArthur when the Korean war broke out in 1950 and this was interpreted to allow for self-defense capabilities and Japan today maintains a large self-defense Force.

China incident

While Japanese troops were conducting Maneuvers dressed outside Beijing in July 1937 a class broke out with nearby Chinese troops.

 though prime minister Kanoe sought a local settlement, Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek was pressured to take a more aggressive stance.

 when war broke out on the 7th of July 1937 the Japanese leadership believed it would be a short war but fighting continued until the 15th of August 1945

Exclusion Act

passed by Congress in 1924 this limited Japanese immigration to the United States setting off a wave of anti-American demonstrations in Japan and contributing to the broad feeling of resentment toward the west.

15 May Incident

As a part of the showa restoration attempts of the early 1930s this was planned and carried out in 1932 by Young members of the ultra nationalist group Ketsumeidan in concert with Navy officers and army Cadets. seeking to affect a restoration of direct Imperial rule the group Unleashed a burst of violence against civilian government leaders. 

Afterwards prime minister Saito Makoto stop political Harmony by creating a so-called cabinet of national Unity

Imperial Rule Assistance Association

Prime minister Kanoe founded this In 1940 after the political parties voluntarily disbanded themselves. 

His aim was to quiet the political squabbling between the military, civilian bureaucracy, political parties, and Industrial interests. 

This was a single unified political party that functioned primarily as a means of exercising control over the wartime population.

Independence of the Supreme Command

The Meiji constitution of 1890 stipulated that the military would be under the direct control of the emperor independent of Citizen governmental control.

 Although not initially a problem since during the Meiji period the oligarchs who drafted the Constitution also advised the emperor and controlled the government by the 1920s and 30s problems arose as the military began to act increasingly independently for example The Manchurian Incident of 1931.

Kanto Earthquake in 1923

Disaster in the kanto plane which Tokyo is located in that killed over 100,000 people and injured another 500,000. 

in the chaotic aftermath riots broke out in which Koreans and other minorities including racial intellectuals were targeted by both the people and the police. 

The rebuilding proved to be a costly drain for Japan that was experiencing an economic downturn

Kodoha

Influential faction within the army with many younger supporters that believed Japan must prepare for war with the Soviet union.

 They advocated direct violent action to affect a showa restoration. They carried out the 26th February incident in 1936. 

The Purge of the faction in the aftermath of this incident left the opposing Toseiha in a dominant position in the army.

Kwantung Army

A division of the Japanese Imperial Army sent to guard Japanese leasehold on the south Manchuria Railway and the Liaodong peninsula in Kwantung Province in China in 1907.

 This Army attracted top soldiers advocating an aggressive Japanese stance towards China. they also took a leading role in pressing Japan's advantages in northern China and Manchuria

Lytton report

In 1933 the League of Nations released this criticizing Japan's aggression in Manchuria and calling on Japan to withdraw from the region. Japan's response was to withdraw from the League of Nations furthering its International isolation

London conference

This was designed to update the 1922 Washington conference agreements on Naval arms limitations. Japan hoped to increase its ratio of Naval tonnage to be similar to Great Britain and the US but could not. Prime minister Hamaguchi signed this treaty despite Navy objections incurring the Wrath of the Navy general staff for having breached the independence of the Supreme command.

Manchurian Incident

Field grade officers of the Kwantung army Hoping to expand hostilities in Manchuria and press Japan's Advantage there exploded a bomb on the south Manchurian railroad just outside of Mukden. 

without authorization from the government in Tokyo military reinforcements were sent to the area from Japan's colony and korea. in February 1932 Manchuria was made into the Japanese puppet state manchukuo the incident and its aftermath led to the increased International isolation for Japan and resulted in the military taking control of Foreign Affairs until the end of the Pacific War in 1945. 

Midway

Battle fought in early June 1942. the brainchild of Admiral Yamamoto who threatened to resign if not allowed to pursue the plan for a surprise attack designed to eliminate the remnants of the US Pacific Fleet that escaped the destruction at Pearl harbor. 

US intelligence broke their Japanese code and forewarned of the attack the US prevailed despite their Underdog status. four Japanese carriers were destroyed in the battle

Was Japan's last offensive action and became a turning point in the Pacific War.

New Order in East Asia

In November 1938 prime minister canoe announced Japan's goals to build this harping on such things as Asia for the Asians and a self-sufficient Asia free from Western interference. 

This idea became a Cornerstone of Japan's efforts to subdue Asia during the Pacific War.

1947 Constitution

Ratified by the Diet and effective from May 1947 this placed sovereignty in the people and made the emperor a symbol of the state and of the unity of the people. It granted Japanese citizens basic human rights including equal rights for men and women, made the diet the highest organ of the state, and eliminated Japan's rights to maintain War potential.

peace preservation law

Passed in March 1925 directly following the enactment of the universal manhood suffrage law. designed to reign in excessive political activity, this outlawed any organization that advocated an end to the system of private property and any group that advocated a change in the emperor system. 

It was amended in 1928 to allow for the death penalty and again in 1941 to provide for preventive arrest and was an important tool in the government's exercise of control over the population up until its repeal in 1945.

Pearl Harbor

Having failed to secure diplomatic access to Southeast Asian oil and faced with the US demands for a return to the status quo Japan attacked the US Pacific Fleet  on December 8th 1941. 

They did this in hopes of bringing the United States back to the negotiating table with a more favorable offer. 

Instead the attack roused the United States from its isolation and resulted in American declaration of war against both Japan and Germany.

Potsdam declaration

The US, Britain and China agreed on this calling for Japan's unconditional surrender to end the Pacific War and outlined military, political and other reforms that Japan must subsequently adopt. 

The Soviet Union later agreed to the terms which promised utter Destruction for Japan should it continue to fight. 

Despite serious concerns over the fate of the emperor and the Imperial institution, on the 14th of August 1945 Japan agreed to the unconditional surrender and shortly thereafter the Allied occupation of Japan commenced.

Reverse course

In the late 1940s as communism was taking root and Mainland China and in North Korea and Northern Vietnam occupation policy began to shift away from the original goal of rebuilding Japan into a stable, pacifistic, agrarian nation and began to focus on a Japan that would serve as the United States bulwark against Asian communism.

Early occupation labor and economic reforms were modified and article 9 of the 1947 Constitution was reinterpreted to allow Japan to maintain defensive military capability.

 San Francisco peace treaty

The formal end to the Pacific War and the end of the Allied occupation of Japan was arranged with the signing of this on the 8th of September 1951. It went into effect in April 1952. In it Japan renounced claim to all its territories acquired through aggression.

showa restoration

This encompassed a series of attempts in the early 1930s to remove civilian influence from the government and to restore direct Imperial rule including the May 15th incident of 1932 and the February 26th incident of 1936. 

The conspirators in these efforts were generally younger members of the military imbued with the emperor centered Ultra nationalism that characterized Japanese Society in the 1930s and 1940s.

Tonarigumi

These were neighborhood groups of 10 to 20 households Organized by the IRAA in 1940 to promote the war effort and to provide for Mutual surveillance. They functioned as the smallest administrative unit of the government and enabled the government to exercise minute control over the population.

Toseiha

Control faction in the Army led by Tojo and Ishwara. This advocated economic and technological mobilization for war against china. Opposed by the kodoha the influence of this increased after the 26th February incident and led to a purge of the kodoha

Tripartite Pact

Pact signed by Japan with Germany and Italy in Berlin on the 27th of September 1940. The signatories pledge that when and if any of the signatories were attacked by any third power not then engaged in the European war or the China incident (excluding the Soviet Union) the other two would Aid her with all political, economic or military means.

Though it did not lead to increased cooperation between Germany Italy and Japan it did result in a US embargo on the sale of Scrap Iron and Steel to Japan.

21 demands

Issued to China in 1915 by Japan these were designated to consolidate Japan's World War 1 gains in China.they included economic military and political concessions and inspired Widespread anti-japanese feelings in China which contributed to Japan's growing insecurity in China.

 February 26th incident

 Army coup attempt aimed at removing civilian officials around the throne and restoring direct Imperial rule. For 3 Days 1,400 Army troops controlled downtown Tokyo until Emperor Hirohito indicated he did not support the coup. Led by the Kodo faction of the army the resulting Purge strengthened Tosei faction influence in the army

United States Japan Mutual Security treaty

This was signed in conjunction with the San Francisco peace treaty because the post-war Constitution prohibited Japan from maintaining anything but a defensive military capability. This provided Japan with US military protection in exchange for which the US was granted the right to maintain military bases in japan. Despite considerable opposition in Japan over the years the treaty has been renewed between the two countries since it went into effect in 1952 the treaty has kept Japanese military expenditures relatively low allowing Japan to concentrate its capital on Industrial development.

Universal manhood suffrage bill

This granted the vote to all non-indigent males over the age of 25 expanding the electorate from 3 million to 12.5 million. To calm conservative fears of political chaos immediately prior to passing this bill the Diet passed the peace preservation law.

Zaibatsu

Huge financial combines consisting of vertical monopolies. Because occupation authorities believed they played a large role in promoting pre-war and wartime militarism and in an effort to introduce economic democratization to Japan these combines were targeted for dissolution by the occupation. the effort to eliminate them however is widely regarded as the least successful of the occupation reforms and similar Financial organizations exist in Japan today known as the keiretsu