wow

Enlightenment

Intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority.

Sovereignty

The supreme authority within a territory; the power of a state to govern itself.

Scientific Revolution

Period of major scientific advancements in Europe (16th-17th centuries) emphasizing observation, experimentation, and rationality.

Isaac Newton

English scientist who formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, laying foundations for modern physics.

Philosophes

French Enlightenment thinkers who promoted reason, progress, and secular governance.

Social Contract

Political theory proposing that governments derive their authority from the consent of the governed.

Natural Rights

Universal rights inherent to all humans, such as life, liberty, and property.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Early feminist and Enlightenment thinker who advocated for women's rights and education in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792).

Romanticism

Cultural movement emphasizing emotion, nature, and individualism, often reacting against Enlightenment rationalism.

Conservatism

Political philosophy favoring traditional institutions, hierarchy, and resistance to rapid change.

Deism

Belief in a rational God who created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs; popular among Enlightenment thinkers.

Liberalism

Political ideology emphasizing individual freedom, equality before the law, and representative government.

Radicals

Those who sought fundamental political or social reforms, often calling for democracy or equality.

John Locke

English philosopher who argued that people possess natural rights and that governments exist to protect them; influenced liberal thought.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

French philosopher who argued that legitimate political authority comes from a social contract based on the 'general will.'

Baron von Montesquieu

French Enlightenment thinker who advocated for separation of powers within government to prevent tyranny.

Thomas Hobbes

English philosopher who argued in Leviathan that strong government is necessary to maintain social order.

Immanuel Kant

German philosopher who emphasized reason and moral autonomy in his works on ethics and metaphysics.

Separation of Powers

Division of government authority among branches to prevent abuse of power.

Balance of Power

Diplomatic concept aimed at preventing any one nation from dominating Europe.

Parliament

Representative governing body in England that limited the monarch's authority and expanded popular participation.

Glorious Revolution

1688 overthrow of King James II of England, establishing a constitutional monarchy under William and Mary.

Citizen

Member of a nation with rights and responsibilities under its government.

Civil Rights

Rights protecting individuals' freedoms and ensuring equal treatment under the law.

Adam Smith

Scottish economist who argued for free markets and competition in The Wealth of Nations (1776).

Olympe de Gouges

French feminist who authored Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen during the French Revolution.

Seven Years' War

Global conflict (1756-1763) involving European powers; its costs prompted new colonial taxes and revolts.

Estate System

French social hierarchy dividing society into clergy, nobility, and commoners, contributing to revolutionary tensions.

French Revolution

Political and social upheaval (1789-1799) that overthrew the monarchy and inspired movements for liberty and equality.

Guillotine

Execution device used during the French Revolution as a symbol of equality and revolutionary justice.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

1789 French document asserting equality, liberty, and natural rights for all male citizens.

American Revolution

War (1775-1783) in which the thirteen British colonies in North America gained independence as the United States.

Declaration of Independence

1776 document written by Thomas Jefferson proclaiming American independence and natural rights.

Thomas Jefferson

Author of the Declaration of Independence and Enlightenment-inspired advocate for liberty and democracy.

Bourgeoisie

Middle class in Europe that gained economic power and pushed for political influence during the Enlightenment and revolutions.

Tennis Court Oath

1789 pledge by the French Third Estate to draft a new constitution, marking the start of the French Revolution.

Primogeniture

Inheritance system granting estates to the eldest son, often prompting younger sons to seek opportunities abroad.

Maroons

Communities of escaped enslaved people who resisted European colonization in the Americas.

Creoles

People of European descent born in the Americas who led many independence movements in Latin America.

Peninsulares

Spanish-born elites in the colonies who held top government and church positions.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French military leader who rose to power after the Revolution, expanding French influence across Europe.

Napoleonic Code

French civil law code established by Napoleon, emphasizing equality before the law and secular authority.

King Louis XVI

French monarch executed during the French Revolution for tyranny and failure to reform.

Maximilien Robespierre

Radical leader during the French Revolution who led the Reign of Terror before his execution.

Miguel Hidalgo

Mexican priest who launched the 1810 independence movement against Spanish rule.

José Morales

Mexican revolutionary priest who continued Hidalgo's struggle for independence.

José de San Martín

South American general who helped liberate Argentina, Chile, and Peru from Spanish control.

Dom Pedro I

Portuguese prince who declared Brazil's independence in 1822 and became its first emperor.

Simón Bolívar

Venezuelan revolutionary leader who fought for independence across South America; known as 'The Liberator.'

Latin American Revolutions

Series of 19th-century uprisings against European colonial powers across Latin America.

Gran Colombia

Short-lived republic created by Bolívar uniting several northern South American states.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Leader of the Haitian Revolution who led enslaved Africans to victory against French colonial forces.

Jamaica Letter

1815 document by Bolívar expressing ideas of liberty, equality, and unity for Latin America.

Haitian Revolution

Successful slave revolt (1791-1804) in Saint-Domingue that established Haiti as the first Black republic.

Grand Blancs

Wealthy white plantation owners in Saint-Domingue.

Petit Blancs

Poor or middle-class whites in Saint-Domingue, often resentful of the elite.

Saint-Domingue

French Caribbean colony that became Haiti after a successful slave revolution.

Haiti

Caribbean nation that gained independence from France in 1804 after the world's only successful slave revolt.

Popular Sovereignty

Principle that political authority rests with the people rather than monarchs or elites.

Populist Politics

Political movements that appeal to the common people against established elites.

Self-Determination

Right of peoples or nations to govern themselves without external control.

Nationalism

Ideology emphasizing pride, unity, and loyalty to one's nation, often leading to independence movements.

Nation

Group of people with a shared culture, language, and history who identify as a political community.

Zionism

Jewish nationalist movement advocating for the establishment of a homeland in Palestine.

Theodor Herzl

Founder of the Zionist movement advocating for Jewish statehood.

Count Cavour

Prime minister of Sardinia who led the unification of northern Italy through diplomacy and alliances.

Giuseppe Mazzini

Italian nationalist who founded the movement Young Italy to promote unification and republicanism.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Italian nationalist and military leader who helped unify southern Italy with the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian statesman who unified Germany through 'blood and iron' policies and realpolitik.

Realpolitik

Pragmatic, power-based approach to politics focused on practical goals rather than ideology.

Levee en Masse

Mass conscription of citizens in revolutionary France to defend the nation; symbol of national unity.

Congress of Vienna

1815 meeting of European powers that sought to restore pre-revolutionary order and balance of power after Napoleon's defeat.

Klemens von Metternich

Austrian diplomat who led the Congress of Vienna, promoting conservatism and stability.

Pan-Slavism

Movement advocating for the unity of all Slavic peoples under common cultural and political goals.

Revolutions of 1848

Series of liberal and nationalist uprisings across Europe seeking political and social reforms.

Taiping Rebellion

Massive mid-19th century civil war in China inspired by Christian and egalitarian ideals; challenged the Qing dynasty.

Hong Xiuquan

Leader of the Taiping Rebellion who claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus Christ.

Nanjing

Chinese city captured by the Taiping rebels and declared the capital of their 'Heavenly Kingdom.'

Sepoy

Indian soldiers employed by the British East India Company.

Sepoy Rebellion

1857 revolt of Indian soldiers against British control; also called the Indian Mutiny; marked a turning point in colonial rule.

Muslim League

Political organization founded in 1906 in British India to protect Muslim interests; later led to the creation of Pakistan.