The British experience of warfare c1790-1918: Britain and the French Wars, 1793-1815

Key reasons for war (Political)

Involving things to do with changes in rulers or laws i.e. power, control and influence.

Key reasons for war (Religion)

A change or fight over religion, or a new way or worshipping e.g. Catholics. Protestants, the Reformation.

Key reasons for war (Economy)

Something to do with money or wealth, in different forms e.g. trade, resources, money.

Key reasons for war (Ideology)

Ideology is the way in which the world is looked at and how it should be organised. This is associated with revolution, radicalism and philosophy.

The Battle of Hastings (1066)

This battle took place because William of Normandy (northern France) felt he was the rightful ruler of England and he invaded, with the support of the Pope. Mainly motivated by political/religious reasons.

Angevin vs Capetian (c1152 onwards)

These are the arguments that led to wars between Henry II of England and Louis VII of France and his son Philip II. These squabbles were over large parts of France that Henry's wife "owned" and both monarchs wanted. Mainly motivated by economic reasons.

Franco-Scots Alliance (1327 onwards)

From 1327 the French and Scots agreed to defend each other in the event if an attack by England. This went into the 17th century and is where the "Auld Alliance" came from Elizabeth I's reign. Mainly motivated by political reasons.

The 100 years war (1337-1453

Actually was fought over 115 years. These wars were fought over the English monarch's claim to be King of France as well. Arguably the most famous war between the two countries, including battles such as Crecy in 1346, Poitiers in 1356 and Agincourt in 1415. Mainly motivated by political reasons.

Tudor vs Valois (c1511 onwards)

This squabble began with Henry VII and Francis I over who was the most important monarch in Europe and Henry's assertion of his right to claim land in France. Mainly motivated by political reasons.

War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697)

It was feared that a very powerful Louis XIV of France would achieve European domination. This culminated in the War of the League of Augsburg when England, together with the Dutch succeeded in stopping this happening. Mainly motivated by political reasons.

The War of Spanish Succession (1702-1713)

This was a war to stop the French monarchy laying claim to the empty Spanish throne. Britain was trying to maintain the balance of power in Europe and not have one nation with too much power. Mainly motivated by political reasons.

The War of the Austrian succession (1740-1748)

This was a war to stop the French monarchy laying claim to the empty Austrian throne. Britain is trying to maintain the balance of power in Europe and not have one nation with too much power. Battles took place in North America, India and Silesia (Poland). Mainly motivated by political reasons.

The Seven Years War (1756-1763)

Historians sometimes call this the "First World War" because it was fought in several continents. This war was over territory in North America and India, and led to the British domination of both continents. Mainly motivated by economic reasons.

The American War of Independence (1775-1783)

This was the war between the British crown and British colonists in one of the colonies. The French decided to get involved because they saw an opportunity to strike a blow against Britain. Mainly motivated by economic reasons.

Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815)

This was a war to stop the spread of French republicanism across Europe (including Britain) and dominating the continent. Mainly motivated by ideological reasons.

The French Revolution (1789-1795)

Marked a complete upheaval of French Society. King Louis XVI was beheaded. The revolution threatened to spread across Europe, and all of Europe (especially the monarchies) including Britain, saw it as a huge threat to stability and order. At one point, France was at war with every country in Europe.

France's strengths

France had a population roughly twice that of Britain. Still had a powerful navy, which during the American war of independence proved it could defeat the British.

Britain's strengths

Britain was the second most urbanised country in Europe and had a more modern economy. Britain had a stable and relatively sophisticated financial system to back a war effort. Britain's financial strength enabled it to fund coalitions with allies such as Austria, Prussia and Russia. The navy protected British maritime trade and colonies e.g. Canada. The East India Company had ousted the French in key parts of India.

British war effort (Royal Navy)

Supported overseas campaigns such as those in India and in the Peninsular War. British ships blockaded French ports to strangle trade, while protecting British commerce. The fleet in home waters defended Britain and Ireland from invasion. Napoleon never attempted a full scale landing and 2 small raids failed (1796, bad weather, 1797, met by British militia and failed). The British navy outnumbered the French navy and deployed ships and man power. Nelson was an impressive commander and after Trafalgar, British command of the sea was assured.

British war effort (Land Campaigns)

Before the French Wars, the British army was in a poor state, growing from about 40,000 to about 250,000 by Waterloo in 1815 (but this was still smaller than the French conscript army). Britain was wary of risking its military against Napoleon in central Europe and were unwilling to fight peripheral campaigns. British army had only done small expeditions to establish the army's reputation after earlier failed European expeditions. By 1813, Napoleon could still muster almost a million men against a British-Portuguese army of a little over 100,000. However, they were outmatched by Wellington and led them to victory at Waterloo.

British war effort (The home front)

British industry grew in several key sectors, such as coal, iron, textiles. Trade embargos imposed by Napoleon were unsuccessful and smuggling was rife. The French cotton industry was much weaker and so British cotton exports rose, even to France, with British factories even supplying the French with cloth for uniforms. The government introduced Britain's first ever income tax. Changes in the way poor relief was administered helped to alleviate poverty and prevent disorder. Corn Laws of 1815, helped to protect farmers and cheaper imports.

Rearguard action

A defensive engagement by a small force of soldiers to hold off and delay a pursuing enemy while the main army withdraws

Bayonet

Short sword fixed to the end of a musket or a rifle. Used by infantry in close combat.

Siege train

Heavy artillery and engineering equipment needed to assault and destroy fortifications or a walled town under siege.

Square

For defence against cavalry, infantry fixed bayonets and formed ranks in squares with all the soldiers facing outwards. They could fire at attacking cavalry from all sides and present a barrier of steel blades against horsemen trying to break through. A square could move but only slowly as some soldiers within it had to walk sideways or backwards.

Wellington's character

Was known for his attention to detail and for picking battle locations that gave him some advantage. Believed his army should be supplied from Britain and the Navy rather than living off the land. Believed he helped to make the army better and soldiers trusted his decision making.

Prelude to the Peninsular War

Napoleon began a new campaign in Europe in 1805, after a brief period of peace. He considered invading Britain, but after the battle of Trafalgar gave this up, instead turning to the Iberian Peninsula. Spain was his ally but he annoyed them, while Portugal and Britain were old allies.

Prelude to the Peninsular War: Initial success and setbacks

Wellington arrived in Portugal in July 1808, his force strengthened by 5,000 Portuguese and extra British troops (commanded by Sir John Moore). On the 21st August, they defeated the French, led by Marshal Junor. Wellington's power was superseded by Sir Henry Dalrymple and his second in command. They agreed to the Convention of Sintra, where French troops could be evacuated in British ships, which angered him and so he returned to Britain. He returned by April 1809 and was in sole control. At Corunna many British troops were killed during evacuation and this had a demoralising effect.

Prelude to the Peninsular War: Wellington's tactics

Between 1809-1814, Wellington embarked on a campaign against experienced French generals, in Massena, Marmont and Soult. Wellington used Iberian geography and his local allies, aiming to maintain his own troops morale and readiness e.g. using rear-guard tactics. Wellington worked on neutralising French strengths, such as artillery, massed infantry and mobility e.g. using hills so the French had to run uphill into British infantry who were shooting with bayonets. In Portugal, Wellington had secure lines of supply with Lisbon

Prelude to the Peninsular War: Talavera

The ferocity of the Spanish guerrillas contrasted with the weakness of the Spanish army e.g. at Talavera in September 1809, the Spanish were let down by incompetent leaders, with Portugal acting as a more reliable ally. The Spanish were ill-equipped and so Wellington recommended William Carr, to retrain the Portuguese Army, which by 1810 he trusted enough to integrate alongside the British.

Prelude to the Peninsular War: Torres Vedras

To protect supply lines during the winter of 1809-10, Wellington built massive fortification works (the lines of Torres Vedras). This meant that his army remained secure, with the French unable to bring up a siege train. As they withdrew, the British employed a scorched earth strategy, removing supplies from the countryside. The French were harassed by guerrillas with their soldiers hungry and cold, while the British and Portuguese rested behind the lines.

Fuentes de Onoro

By 1811, Napoleon had driven Austria, Prussia and Russia from the war. The Peninsula was the only land zone where Britain could fight back and Wellington moved to Spain to besiege Almeida, a border town under French control. The French tried to relieve Almeida and on 3rd May, attacked Wellington at Fuentes de Onoro. The battle lasted 3 days, surviving near disaster when the 7th division was almost caught in the open by the French, until the Light division joined it and performed a withdrawal in square formation. The French were able to ship most of their troops out of Almeida which Wellington felt was a result of him not personally being on the spot.

Wellington of the offensive

In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia with 500,000 men, he pulled out veteran troops from Spain to help this vast army.

Wellington was, for the first time, not outnumbered, and therefore adopted a more aggressive approach.

Wellington of the offensive: Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz

First attacked the border fortresses at Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, which involved weeks of siege, bringing up artillery to blast breaches in fortress walls before hand to hand fighting. In the aftermath townspeople were killed, raped and robbed and there was wild looting. Picton (one of Wellington's generals) helped to restore discipline. There was some clemency and people weren't hung, likely because of the battle's losses.

Wellington of the offensive: Salamanca and Vitoria

On the march, Wellington went for days without proper sleep. with his mood dependent on news of his army. At the battle of Salamanca (July 1812), Wellington used hills to shield his army and took the French by surprise, leaving them scattered with heavy losses. The allies entered Madrid, making Wellington a hero. He complained that his daily pay was too low and was critical of unfamiliar officers and nervous of poor behaviour. By the summer of 1813, the French had fallen back on Vitoria, with Wellington cutting of their retreat. This defeated the war in Spain, and in 1814, Wellington invaded Southern Spain.

The Hundred Days

France was invaded in 1814 by the allies, and in April 1814, Napoleon was forced to abdicate, retreating into exile. However 1815, Napoleon escaped and arrived in France with 600 soldiers. Napoleon entered Paris as emperor once again and the European powers declared war.

The Hundred Days (Taking on Napoleon)

Wellington led a Western coalition army of British, Belgians, Dutch and Germans, with headquarters in Brussels. He planned to co-operate with the Prussians, but they were not yet ready to join the campaign. He was uncertain of the Belgian and Dutch troops, and was more trusting of the British and German Legion.

The Hundred Days (Quatre Bras)

16 June 1815 - Wellington was attacked by Marshal Ney at Quatre Bras but held position. Wellington also prudently withdrew.

The Hundred Days (Ligny)

16 June 1815 - The Prussians lost to Napoleon and pulled back as the French headed for Brussels. Blucher told Wellington he would bring the Prussian army to the next battle.

The Battle of Waterloo

18th June 1815 - ended the French Wars. Wellington had 68,000 men and 156 guns against Napoleon's 72,000 and 246 guns. Napoleon faced problems on the morning of the battle e.g. was unwell, troops were uphill and the ground was waterlogged. The battle was very much in the balance.

The Battle of Waterloo: The tide turning

Wellington was on the move most of the day, directing matters, while Napoleon was too static and in the afternoon was taken ill, leaving Ney in command. Ney mistakenly believed Wellington was retreating and sent the French cavalry in pursuit. The allies infantry formed squares, firing volleys into the French. The Prussians were also joining the battle and Napoleon committed the Young Guard to hold up the Prussians and the Old Guard to break the British line. As the Prussians arrived, the French army disintegrated and many fled/surrendered. Napoleon fled and ended up in exile.

The Battle of Waterloo: Wellington, the general

Wellington returned to Britain a hero and to a political career and transformed the image of the British soldier. He later said that he would have been more aggressive if he had his Peninsular Army.

The British and naval warfare: Navy

Britain depended on ships for its trade and needed a well-maintained Royal Navy that was fit for battle. However, the American war of independence revealed that many ships of the line (largest battleships) were old and poorly maintained. The British Navy had competent admirals such as Samuel Hood, Richard Howe and John Jervis, and younger commanders such as Nelson.

The British and naval warfare: Number of ships

In 1792, the British Navy had 135 ships of the line and 133 smaller frigates, as well as 16,000 sailors. By 1802, the numbers had risen to 202 and 277 with 135,000 sailors.

The British and naval warfare: Nelson

Nelson was born in Norfolk in 1758 and joined the navy aged 12, gaining his first command in 1779. He was known for his leadership, personal bravery and grasp of naval tactics as well as his death at Trafalgar. He served in the American war of Independence in the Caribbean.

The Navy's role: Mutinies

From the outbreak of war in 1793, the navy had ships at sea for months at end, straining its logistics and creating problems of administration and supply. Its dockyards were in poor condition, and shortages of home ground timber meant that shipbuilding and repair were deficient. There were mutinies at Spithead (Portsmouth) and the Nore (Thames). Spithead was about conditions, Nore was more political, demanding peace with France. This meant that experienced seamen were hard to find and retain, so press gangs were used to force civilians to serve in the fleet.

The Navy's role: Main roles

The navy had a worldwide view, with its main fleet close to Europe. The key tasks of the navy were to protect Britain and Ireland against invasion, to protect British commerce on the high seas, as well as interfere with French sea trade and naval activity by blockading French ports and also by stopping ships from neutral countries, in order to search their cargos for useful war materials.

Nelson's rise to prominence: Development of career

In 1793, Nelson was in command of a squadron in the Mediterranean. In 1794, he lost sight in his right eye when he was wounded by an exploding cannon shell during a battle with the French. He became famous in 1797, for his part in the Battle of Cape St Vincent. He led his men in battle on the enemy's deck, despite sever damage. He managed to capture 2 Spanish warships, increasing his reputation and gaining him a promotion.

Nelson's rise to prominence: Key traits

Nelson believed in gunnery and boldness, training his gun crews to fire faster and his boarding parties to follow their officers into hand to hand fights on enemy vessels. His bravery helped him to win loyalty from his men, who wanted a bold commander who could bring them prize money. Furthermore, he was also aggressive and was seen to be frustrated when forced into inactivity e.g. when he was injured at the end of 1797.

Maritime trade and control of the Mediterranean: Importance of the navy

The British navy and its naval strengths meant that they were the main obstacle to French invasion. Britain were able to defy trade embargos and maintain global trade attempts.

Maritime trade and control of the Mediterranean: Mediterranean

The Mediterranean was a key battle ground as Napoleon had plans for Egypt, moving his army there in 1788. A French presence in Egypt seemed to threaten British power in the Mediterranean as well as in India.

Maritime trade and control of the Mediterranean: Nelson

Nelson was tasked with cruising the Mediterranean to address the French threat. He launched an attack in Aboukir Bay on the French fleet. The French were anchored in a line, but Nelson slipped half his force between the French and the coast to attack from both sides. Out of 17 French ships, 13 were captured or destroyed, leaving most of Napoleon's army stranded in Egypt. Nelson became a national hero and was made a baron with an annual pension of £2000. His victory was celebrated with pictures and popular songs.

Maritime trade and control of the Mediterranean: Napoleon

Napoleon was a generally adept leader, but was much weaker at naval warfare, especially compared to commanders like Nelson. After Napoleon's army were left stranded in Egypt by Nelson, he eventually gave up and returned to France.

Nelson's fighting qualities

Nelson had a formidable reputation as an admiral, and was intent on both complete destruction of the enemy and also on capturing enemy ships as prizes. He looked after his crews but also demanded an entitlement to a share of prize money gained by captains under his command. Captains respected his courage, aggression and leadership e.g. discussing plans openly with them. He also believed in duty and teamwork among his men, with many of them truly admiring him, despite his injuries, height and frequent seasickness. He became Britain's most famous sailor and was seen to symbolise British resistance to Napoleon.

The threat from Napoleon: 1801

Napoleon was in the Baltic, leading British ships in an attack on Copenhagen. Britain feared that Denmark could join a French alliance. The attack on the Danish ships, was when the famous incident occurred, in which Nelson put a telescope to his sightless eye, when signalled to attack. Nelson later explained that he couldn't see and continued the attack. The battle ended in a truce, emphasising Nelson's status as a hero.

The threat from Napoleon: Peace of Amiens

The Peace of Amiens (1802-03) brought a brief period of respite. Peace talks had begun before Copenhagen due to British fear of the League of Armed Neutrality (Denmark, Sweden, Russia) and their potential danger to maritime trade. The Copenhagen attack quelled such fears and the league was dissolved. Peace of Amiens fell apart because the French refused a trade deal, and occupied Naples. Britain declared war in May 1803.

The threat from Napoleon: Napoleon's plans

Napoleon had been assembling an army with the apparent goal of invading England. No French invasion could succeed while the British patrolled the channel and blockaded French ports in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Napoleon wanted his admirals to lure the British fleet away.

The threat from Napoleon: 1803 and 1804

From July 1803, Nelson was at sea constantly, hoping to engage the French in battle. In 1804, Spain joined the war with the French, but the new French naval commander was neither aggressive, nor confident and was reluctant to leave port.

Naval technology and tactics: Ships

Nelson's flagship was HMS Victory. It was technically already an old ship at Trafalgar but had been improved by the innovation of coppering in the 1780s. Coppering involved covering a ship's wooden hull with copper sheets. The metal protected wood and nails from rot, corrosion and marine creatures. Normally, wooden hulls grew a thick crust of barnacles and seaweed after years at sea, meaning they had to be dry docked. Coppering meant that they lasted longer and were faster.

Naval technology and tactics: Tactics

Gunnery was the key to winning a sea battle, and captains drove their gun crews to achieve faster rates of fire. Nelson's favourite ploy was to break the enemy's line, so his ships could fire in turn, using broadships which did terrible damage, smashing through the ship and killing/wounding many people. More often ships were captured than sunk, and these ships became a prize of victory. British sailors admired French shipbuilding and captured French ships were often repaired and reflagged.

Strategy and man-management

Naval strategy often became a guessing game as enemy ships/fleets could easily disappear. Fast frigates and cruisers had to keep watch and report movements, but leaders such as Nelson also had to rely on guesswork as well as intelligent. During this a captain was responsible for keeping the crew healthy, on a diet of salt beef, mouldy biscuits, foul drinking water and rum/brandy. On long voyages sailors often became ill with scurvy.

Chasing the French: January 1805

In January 1805, Admiral Villeneuve (French naval commander) put to sea, but the French ships had to return to port, as a result of rough seas and fears of Nelson.

Chasing the French: March 1805

Napoleon wanted Villeneuve to be bolder and at the end of March 1805, the French fleet finally broke out of the Mediterranean and escaped towards the West Indies. This alarmed the British government, fearing French attacks on the sugar trade. Nelson felt his fortune had been lost, but was able to sail in pursuit, crossing in 3 weeks (the French took 5) and arrived with fit crews , while the French had 1,000 sick men. The 2 fleets never met as they both moved back to Europe, Nelson moving fast enough that Napoleon couldn't take the opportunity to cross the channel.

Chasing the French: London 1805

In London, in 1805, Sir Charles Middleton (Lord Barham) took over the Admiralties and ordered aggressive action against the French. Nelson was ordered to provide a naval escort for General James Craig's army expedition enroute to Gibraltar and Malta.

The battle of Trafalgar: Lead-up to the battle

The combined French and Spanish fleets survived a skirmish with the British under Admiral Calder and reached port in Cadiz. Nelson returned for a month's rest in England, before sailing once more in September 1805 in HMS Victory. In October, the French and Spanish ships emerged, ordered by Napoleon to sail to Italy to support his campaign against the Austrians. This was Nelson's opportunity. His fleet had 27 ships of the line against the enemy's 33, and he caught up with Villeneuve off Cape Trafalgar, in southern Spain on 21 October.

The battle of Trafalgar: Tactics

The British ships formed two columns, one led by Nelson and the other by Vice-Admiral Collingwood. They broke through the Franco-Spanish line and fighting at close quarters ensued. Nelson's flagship HMS Victory ran alongside the French Redoutable and from both ships guns of all sizes, from cannons to muskets and pistols, fired at point-blank range. HMS Temeraire joined in, firing broadside into the other side of the French ship, whose captain, Jean Lucas, described how its decks were covered with dead, buried beneath debris and splinters. The French ship lost 490 men out of 643.

The battle of Trafalgar: Nelson's death

Nelson remained on deck in his admiral's uniform (with decorations), which made him a very visible target. He was shot by a French sniper positioned atop the mast of Redoutable, the bullet piercing his lung and lodging in his spine. Carried below deck, he was told of his victory before he died at 4.30 p.m

The battle of Trafalgar: Aftermath

The remnants of Villeneuve's fleet, now under Spanish command since Villeneuve had been captured, returned to Cadiz. Most of the ships taken as prizes by the British went down in a terrible storm that blew up after Trafalgar, the British taking only four into Gibraltar. Nelson's body was brought back to England, for burial in St Paul's Cathedral. The Battle of Trafalgar ended French hopes of challenging Britain's supremacy at sea. Napoleon abandoned any thought of invasion and, from 1805, concentrated on economic warfare and supremacy on land in Europe against Britain's allies. Nelson had set the tone for the Royal Navy's war - long patrols at sea, often tedious, to confine the enemy ships in port, interspersed with bold attacks on any ship or fleet that showed itself.

The war on French trade

The British dominated world maritime trade, with more than 21,000 vessels by 1815. France had far fewer ships (in the hundreds only), and French manufacturers relied on imports from British colonies of goods such as tea, coffee, sugar, spices and cotton. With the British navy protecting merchant ships on the oceans, and keeping many French warships blockaded in ports, Napoleon's efforts to impose a trade embargo, banning all British colonial ships from France, had limited success. French overseas trade suffered more than Britain's. The French relied on neutral shipping (such as American) to carry goods, but the British navy insisted on stopping and searching neutral ships whenever caught - a policy that soured relations with the USA.

Why did social order become a priority following the French Revolution?

In the years following the French Revolution of 1789, social order became a priority for governments fearing unrest in changing times - political, economic and technological. As the French Wars raged from 1793 to 1815, there were signs that the British government was becoming more restrictive in its attitude towards the poor and labour - for example, the 1799 and 1800 Combination Acts outlawed trade unions.

How did Britain have to adapt to the French wars?

Wars lasting more or less continuously for over 20 years put great strain on the British economy. There were radical money-raising measures, such as the fi rst income tax imposed by Prime Minister William Pitt in 1799. Fears expressed by economists such as Malthus (1798) that Britain's rising population would increase more rapidly than food supplies, leading to mass starvation, proved groundless. Higher food production coped with population growth and the demands of wa

How did Britain use trade during the French wars?

Britain imposed its own blockade, stopping neutral ships as well as effectively shutting off key French ports. Trade was a key weapon. The British army could not defeat Napoleon on land unaided, but Britain's economic weaponry (using its banks to fund coalitions of allies such as Prussia and Austria) and its ability to wage a trade war using its navy gave it powerful assets. This is demonstrated by such measures as the Order in Council issued by George III and his ministers in 1807 (see Source 10), which was aimed not just at countries allied to Napoleon, but at any countries that tried to exclude 'the British fl ag' (that is, British business).

How did Napoleon respond to Britain during the French wars?

Beaten nations were expected to stop trading with Britain. Napoleon hoped this trade blockade, known as the Continental System, imposed in 1807, would choke Britain's economy and force Britain to make peace. It failed. Smugglers and neutral merchants continued to carry goods across the Channel and, since France relied heavily on trade with Britain, the French actually suffered more from sanctions. British merchants found new export markets in northern Europe to compensate for any slowdown in trade across the Mediterranean. Most countries were prepared to break the blockade and trade with Britain either secretly or openly, as Sweden did in 1808 and Russia from 1810 onwards.

How did British measures affect their relationship with the US?

British retaliatory measures against France in this economic war caused a war with the USA. The Royal Navy demanded to board and search any ship trading with France, which annoyed the Americans. The USA banned British trade, a move that hurt Americans more than Britain, and the ensuing tension led to the war of 1812, a pointless distraction for Britain, until it ended in 1814.

How did British exports change during the war?

Trade continued with Europe, despite Napoleon's economic warfare, though there were dips in exports (1805-8, for example). The value of British exports overall rose during the wars, while exports to Europe almost doubled between the 1790s and the end of the war. The trade war had eased by 1812, with the French again allowing the legal importation of British colonial items such as cotton, sugar and tea. By 1813, trade tariffs meant that timber from Canada (a valuable alternative to traditional Baltic timber) was a third cheaper than from other sources. New markets were opened up in Spain, Portugal and Latin America, and trade with the USA also continued despite difficulties caused by the US retaliating against British naval action

How did household incomes change during the war?

Wages in real terms stagnated between 1796 and 1814, and the low paid were hit by rising food prices, especially of bread. There were hard times for families with menfolk away at the war (about one-sixth of the country's male workforce were in the forces), and especially for those whose breadwinners either did not return or came home maimed and unable to work.

Parish relief systems in England

Real wages stagnated during the war years, while prices did not; for the poor, many parishes, particularly in southern England, tied parish relief to the price of bread. The most well-known of these systems was the Speenhamland system, named after a parish in Berkshire, which linked the size of families to the price of bread in order to determine relief. Most of these relief systems died out after 1815.

How much did the war cost Britain?

The Seven Years' War (1756-63) cost Britain around £160 million. The French Wars (1793-1815) cost ten times that - around £1,600 million. This cost was incurred not only by sending the army and navy out to fight the French, but also by funding coalitions of allies against Napoleon.

How did Britain pay for the war?

Much of this finance was secured by borrowing - it was a war funded on credit. Its success was due to Britain's already fairly sophisticated manufacturing and banking systems, to the government's refusal to admit changes such as legal minimum wages and by massive borrowing

How did the government deal with the rising government debt?

Financiers such as Nathan Rothschild helped to fund the swelling national debt and arrange loans. Borrowing, to fund international coalitions against Napoleon, signalled the government's determination to pursue the war to a resolution. The government responded to fears about the growth of the national debt by raising taxes, most innovatively imposing income tax for the first time (1799-1802, and again from 1803 to 1816). To raise money, the government offered government stocks, more secure in wartime than risky new ventures, but on the whole investment remained steady; the number of stock market traders increased (432 in 1792, 726 in 1812), and from 1802 the new London Stock Exchange was operating. There were more banks too, more than 600 by the end of the war.

The agrarian revolution

The French Wars followed a period of agricultural change known as the agrarian revolution. This had begun earlier in the 1700s, and by the 1790s Encyclopaedia Britannica could claim that Britain led all modern nations in husbandry (farming). Output per worker was 50 percent higher than in other European countries. Farmers benefited from higher wartime prices, so much so that at the war's end the government introduced the Corn Laws of 1815, regulations that protected home wheat-growers from cheap foreign imports

What new ideas and methods were introduced by the agrarian revolution?

The agrarian revolution had made British farming more effi cient, with larger farms and fewer workers. New crop rotation systems made better use of land rather than leaving fi elds fallow (unplanted) for a season to restore fertility. Selective breeding produced sheep, cattle and pigs that gave more meat and wool, while new machinery such as Meikle's threshing machine and lighter ploughs required fewer horses or oxen, and fewer men

The Board of Agriculture

In 1793, the government set up a Board of Agriculture, to make surveys of farming in every county. The offi cial who began this task was Arthur Young, who knew most 'improvers', and started a magazine about agricultural modernisation. The farming revolution was spurred on by the demands of the war, even though for most rural communities war was a distant event, only intermittently intruding on their everyday lives

Introduction of inclosure

A key change to land use was the enclosure of farmland. Parliamentary Enclosure Acts consolidated small landholdings into larger, more effi cient farms. There were more than 3,000 such Acts between 1760 and 1820. As small farms were absorbed by large landowners, many small farmers became landless labourers. Some common land used by the poor to graze animals was also enclosed. The enclosures caused resentment among the poor, but boosted output, as did the draining of wetlands to increase the amount of land under cultivation. Landowners seeking enclosures could point to the need to increase production, and reduce labour with men being away at the wars.

Imported grain during the French wars

Grain continued to be imported, though when imports were restricted (as in 1808 when they fell from 114,000 tons in 1807 to only 14,000 tons), the price of wheat rose sharply. The consequent rise in bread prices was made worse by poor harvests in 1809 and 1810.

Wood shortages

Shortage of timber, for shipbuilding, did threaten the war effort. The ancient royal oak forests had been neglected, with many landowners planting wheat instead of oak trees. Admiral St Vincent believed the navy administration to be as rotten as the wood in some of its vessels, and in the early 1800s demanded reform of the naval dockyards, alienating the timber merchants who retaliated by holding back supplies. In 1804, Pitt and Melville reversed St Vincent's reforms to appease the merchants, but a Commission of Inquiry in February 1805 confirmed St Vincent's assessment, and the row led to Melville's replacement in April that year by Barham.

Tariff

Money paid to the government as a tax on the movement of goods

Martello towers

Small coastal forts built along the southern and eastern coasts of England (and in Ireland and the Channel Islands) against the threat of a French invasion

Habeas corpus

The legal procedure that prevents authorities from imprisoning people indefinitely without trial. On production of a writ of habeas corpus, the authorities must either charge the person or release them

Luddite

Those who were fearful of mechanisation and acted in protest by breaking machines. The campaign lasted until the end of the French wars

Cotton trade and textile mills during the war

New machinery was transforming the textile industry - machines such as Crompton's spinning 'mule' and powered looms for weaving cloth. This led to a boom in cotton manufacture; by 1818, there were 337 cotton spinning mills across Britain. This boom went on through the war; rather than halt industrial progress, the wars stimulated it. The cotton trade continued, entering Europe via new routes, for example through Spain and Portugal, as well as being smuggled. Textile mills were busy defying the law and selling to France as well as making uniforms for the British army.

Technological innovation as a result of war

New technology is often spurred by war, and innovations during the French Wars included the industrial lathe invented by Henry Maudslay (1797) and an improved power loom by William Horrocks (1813). Factories set up in 1807 to make sailing blocks (wooden components of a sailing ship's rigging) for the Royal Navy have been seen as the world's first mass-production lines.

Boom in iron making

Iron-making also boomed, with the demand for cannons and other weaponry. For example, the Cyfartha ironworks in South Wales made just 500 tons of iron in 1787; by 1812, it was producing 10,000 tons a year

Growing industrial towns

The population of industrial towns grew fast; by 1820, Merthyr Tydfi l in South Wales had 20 times more people than it had in 1790. The naval dockyards at Chatham, Portsmouth and Devonport were kept busy building new ships and repairing older vessels

Infrastructure improvements in Britain

The war demanded infrastructure improvement, with canal building, to move heavy materials by water, continuing apace. New canals around London and the south and Midlands, including the Royal Military Canal in Kent (1805-10), helped to create a more extensive canal system by 1815. Road transport remained slow, but was improved by better roads maintained by turnpike trusts.

Steam engine development

Steam engine development also continued, mostly for industrial use. In 1796, Boulton and Watt opened a factory to make steam pumping engines. The demonstration in 1804 of a steam locomotive by Richard Trevithick was a pointer towards the age of railways about to begin.

Government wartime construction projects

The government was directly involved in some wartime construction projects, such as the building of Martello towers (1805-8) along the coast to guard against the threat of invasion. It also borrowed the French invention of the Chappé telegraph, a signal system using mechanical arms and shutters to transmit semaphore messages, setting up links such as the telegraph from London to Portsmouth (for Admiralty communications) completed in 1806.

Appearance of luddism

Machine-breaking was a symptom of the fear felt by skilled workers, as traditional craft jobs disappeared. The government cracked down on outbreaks of machine-breaking or 'Luddism'. Luddism flared in Nottinghamshire in 1811, and spread to Yorkshire and Lancashire among textile workers fearful of mechanisation. The government responded to protests by sending in troops to keep the peace, while factory owners hired security guards to protect their machines. Magistrates cracked down on 'trouble makers'. There were new laws to prevent workers forming trade unions (the Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800) and, in 1794, the government suspended habeas corpus. In 1812, the breaking of machines became a capital offence and, in 1813, 17 Luddites were hanged. The Luddite campaign lasted until the end of the French Wars, but deeper social-industrial unrest lingered, and a new vein of political radicalism emerged after the war in, for example, the 'March of the Blanketeers' in 1817.

Origins of luddism

Named after Ned Ludd (or Ludnam), a worker who had broken two hand-knitting machines in Nottinghamshire some 30 years earlier