History 101 exam 2

Alexander the Great

an ancient Macedonian king, is renowned for his brilliant military leadership, vast conquests, and the creation of a large empire that spread Hellenistic culture across a vast region. 

Phalanx

a tightly packed military formation, emerged in ancient Greece around the 7th century BCE

Diadochoi

rival generals, families, and friends of Alexander the Great who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323 BC.

Hellenism

modern pluralistic religion practiced in Greece and around the world by several communities derived from the beliefs, mythology, and rituals.

Library of Alexandria

one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world. The library was part of a larger research institution called the Mouseion, which was dedicated to the Muses, the nine goddesses of the arts.

Syncretism

the blending of different beliefs, practices, and cultural elements to form a new, cohesive system.

Theocracy

a government where a deity or deities are the supreme rulers, and religious law governs the land.

Romulus and Remus

the legendary founders of Rome, twin brothers raised by a she-wolf after being abandoned and later killed by Romulus after a dispute over the city's location. 

Influence of Greeks/Etruscans on Rome

influenced by both the Greeks and the Etruscans, particularly in areas like architecture, religion, art, writing, and governance, with the Etruscans having a more direct impact on early Rome. 

Lucretia

a noblewoman of great beauty and chastity.

Twelve Tables

the first written legal code of the Roman Republic, drafted around 451-450 BCE, and aimed to establish transparency and fairness in the legal system, ensuring equal treatment for all citizens and laying the groundwork for modern civil law. 

Patrician

an aristocrat or nobleman.

Plebian

a member of the common people, especially in ancient Rome.

Consuls & Magistrates

consuls were the chief magistrates. Magistrates were the elected officials of the Roman republic.

Imperium

supreme power or absolute dominion

Legion

a horde or a large number of people or things

Punic Wars

a series of wars between 264 and 146 BC fought between the Roman Republic and the Carthaginian Empire.

Triumvirate

a group of three men holding power, in particular ( the First Triumvirate ) the unofficial coalition of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus in 60 BC and ( the Second Triumvirate ) a coalition formed by Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian in 43 BC.

Julius Caesar

renowned for his military prowess, political ambition, and his role in transforming the Roman Republic into an empire, ultimately becoming its dictator before being assassinated. 

Mark Antony

a Roman general and politician who assisted Julius Caesar in his rise to dictatorship and took on the role of leader after Caesar's assassination

Octavian/Augustus

the founder of the Roman Empire. He reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. First after Ceaser

Battle of Actium

a pivotal naval engagement in 31 BCE, saw Octavian (later known as Augustus) defeat the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the Ionian Sea

Res gestae divi augusti

a monumental inscription composed by the first Roman emperor, Augustus, giving a first-person record of his life and accomplishments.

Pax Romana

is a roughly 200-year-long period of Roman history which is identified as a golden age of increased and sustained Roman imperialism, relative peace and order, prosperous stability, hegemonic power, and regional expansion.

Paterfamilias

male authority within the Roman household, as well as Roman society in general.

Bread and Circuses

a phrase from Juvenal, refers to a political strategy of pacifying the populace with free food and entertainment, potentially distracting them from civic duties and real issues. 

Do ut des

a Latin phrase that means “I give so that you may give”. It's used to describe a reciprocal exchange or contract where one thing is given in expectation of receiving something in return. 

Orthopraxy vs. orthodoxy

orthodoxy refers to "right belief" or adherence to accepted doctrines, while orthopraxy refers to "right practice" or correct conduct and actions. 

Nero

Rome burned while he was emperor, and the eagerness with which he rebuilt led many to believe that he was responsible for the fire. He tried to shift the blame to the Christians

Gospels

the first four books of the New Testament, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which recount the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth

Two-Source Hypothesis

a theory in biblical studies, proposes that the Gospels of Matthew and Luke were based on the Gospel of Mark and a hypothetical collection of Jesus' sayings called "Q"

Paul of Tarsus

his missionary work, which expanded the faith beyond its Jewish roots to include Gentiles, and his extensive writings, which shaped early Christian theology and continue to influence Christian thought today. 

Acts of the Apostles

fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its message to the Roman Empire.

Libellus/libelli

a small, brief document or writing, often used for official purposes like petitions, accusations, or certificates, particularly those related to religious conformity. 

Passion Narratives

refer to the accounts of Jesus' suffering, betrayal, trial, and crucifixion found in the four canonical Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John)

Sts. Perpetua and Felicity

early Christian martyrs in Carthage, North Africa, who died for their faith around 203 AD, and their story is preserved in a first-person account written by Perpetua. 

Edict of Milan

a proclamation issued in 313 CE that granted religious toleration to Christianity and other religions in the Roman Empire. It was the result of an agreement between Roman emperors Constantine I and Licinius. 

Constantine

one of the most important emperors in Roman history. He is mostly known for three things: Moving the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople) Issuing the Edict of Milan, which officially granted tolerance for the Christian religion in Rome.

Battle of Milvian Bridge

a decisive Roman civil war battle where Constantine I defeated Maxentius, solidifying Constantine's control over the Western Roman Empire and paving the way for the eventual establishment of Christianity as the dominant religion. 

Theodosius

established the Apostolic Catholic Church as the only State religion; unlike Constantine and the other Christian emperors, he suppressed both heresy and paganism and enforced orthodoxy by law.

Liu Bang

is renowned for founding the Han dynasty in 202 BCE, a period considered a golden age of Chinese civilization, and for his rise from a peasant background to become emperor. 

Xiongnu

a nomadic people who formed the first nomadic empire in the eastern Eurasian steppes, controlling the region from around 200 BCE to 100 CE, and are believed to be the ancestors of the Huns. 

Equal Market System

ancient China was a price stabilization scheme where the government stored surplus grain during good harvests and released it during shortages to keep prices stable and prevent famine

Debate on Salt and Iron

was a debate held at the imperial court in 81 BCE on state policy during the Han dynasty in China.

Silk Road

a network of ancient trade routes connecting the East and West

Sogdians

Iranian-speaking people from Central Asia who were key to trade and transactions along the Silk Roads.

3 Submissions for Women

a concept rooted in Confucian thought, dictates that a woman should submit to her father before marriage, to her husband after marriage, and to her son after her husband's death. 

Sinicization of Buddhism

refers to the process by which Buddhism, originating in India, adapted and integrated with Chinese culture and beliefs, resulting in a unique form of Buddhism distinct from its origins. 

Gentry Buddhism

the study of the relationship between Buddhism and the rising elite class (gentry) in late Ming China

Caesaropapism

a political system where the head of state also holds supreme authority over the church and religious matters, essentially making the secular ruler the head of the church. 

Bedouins

nomadic Arab tribes, traditionally known as "desert-dwellers," who have historically inhabited the desert regions of the Middle East and North Africa, engaging in animal husbandry and seasonal migrations. 

Mecca

the holiest city in Islam, the birthplace of the prophet Muhammad, and the location of the Kaaba, the holiest site in Islam, where Muslims face when praying. 

Quraysh

a powerful merchant tribe who controlled Mecca and the Kaaba before the rise of Islam, and to which the Prophet Muhammad belonged

Ka’bah

Islam's holiest site, a cubical building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is considered the metaphorical "House of God"

Hadith

traditions, sayings, or actions of the Prophet Muhammad, serving as a primary source of religious guidance and understanding beyond the Quran. 

Night of Power and Excellence

In Islam, "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) is the most revered night of the Islamic calendar, believed to be the night when the Quran was first revealed to Prophet Muhammad, and is considered better than a thousand months

Khadija

the first wife of Muhammad. Born into an aristocratic clan of the Quraysh, she was an affluent merchant in her own right and was known to have a noble personality within her tribe.

Umma

refers to the global community of Muslims, united by their shared faith and belief in one God, transcending national, racial, and class divisions. 

Shahada

the Islamic declaration of faith, the first of the Five Pillars of Islam, and a fundamental tenet of the faith, stating "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God"

Hijra

a third gender identity, encompassing transgender, intersex, and gender-nonconforming individuals, who often live in distinct communities and follow a kinship system known as the guru-chela system. 

Seal of the Prophets

a title used in the Quran and by Muslims to designate the Islamic prophet Muhammad as the final prophet sent by God, meaning no other prophet will follow him. 

Qur’an

the holy book of Islam

5 Pillars of Islam

• Shahadah: The declaration of faith that "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God" 

• Salah: The five daily prayers that Muslims are required to perform 

• Zakat: Almsgiving, or giving money to charity 

• Sawm: Fasting, such as during the holy month of Ramadan 

• Hajj: The pilgrimage to Mecca 

Rashidun Caliphs

"rightly guided," refers to the first four caliphs who succeeded the Prophet Muhammad: Abu Bakr (632–634), Umar (634–644), Uthman (644–656), and Ali (656–661)

Dar al-Islam

refers to regions where Islam is dominant and Islamic law prevails, while "Dar al-Harb" (abode of war) denotes areas where Islam is not the dominant religion and Islamic law is not practiced. 

Umayyad Dynasty

the first Muslim dynasty, ruling the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750 CE, and later establishing the Emirate of Cordoba in 756, which became a center of Islamic culture and science. 

Sunni/Shi’a

split in Islam stems from a disagreement over the rightful successor to Prophet Muhammad after his death in 632 AD

Charles Martel

a Frankish leader and mayor of the palace, is famous for his victory at the Battle of Tours in 732, which halted the advance of the Umayyad Caliphate into Europe and is often credited with saving Europe from Islamic domination. 

Abu Abbas

a founder of the Palestine Liberation Front Organization

Abbasid Dynasty

the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad, ruling from 750 CE to 1258 CE, after overthrowing the Umayyad Caliphate. 

Ulama

scholars who are experts in Islamic religious sciences, including theology, law, and the interpretation of the Quran and Hadith. 

Islamic Golden Age

roughly from the 8th to the 13th centuries, was a period of significant cultural, scientific, and economic flourishing in the Islamic world, marked by advancements in mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and other fields. 

Gupta Empire

a classical Indian empire, flourished from roughly 320 to 550 CE, spanning much of the Indian subcontinent and is often considered the "Golden Age of India" for its advancements in art, science, and literature. 

Indian Golden Age

the period of the Gupta Empire (roughly 320-550 CE), characterized by significant advancements in science, art, literature, and mathematics, including the invention of the decimal numeral system and the concept of zero. 

Kama Sutra

is an ancient Indian Hindu Sanskrit text on sexuality, eroticism and emotional fulfillment.

Rajaraja

was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He is known for his conquests of southern India and parts of Sri Lanka, and increasing Chola influence across the Indian Ocean. Rajaraja's birth name was Arulmozhi Varman.

Anicut

a masonry check dam constructed across a stream to impound water for irrigation and other purposes, with the oldest known example, the Grand Anicut, dating back to the 2nd century AD in Tamil Nadu, India. 

Karkathar

means protector of clouds in Tamil. [1] They are also called as pillai which means son in Tamil. In ancient past, it is said, that people were starving to death because there was no food for the masses .

Cholan Empire

a Tamil dynasty originating from Southern India. At its height, it ruled over the Chola Empire, an expansive maritime empire. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire.

Fall of Rome

refers primarily to the decline and eventual collapse of the Western Roman Empire, marked by the deposition of the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 CE

Apostolic See

the episcopal see of Rome, traditionally founded by Saint Peter, and is considered the seat of authority of the Pope, the Vicar of Christ. 

Clovis I

the first king of the Franks to unite all of the Franks under one ruler, changing the form of leadership from a group of petty kings to rule by a single king, and ensuring that the kingship was passed down to his heirs.

Anglo-Saxons

Germanic peoples who migrated to and settled in Britain after the Roman withdrawal, from the 5th to the 11th centuries, forming the foundation of what would become England and its culture. 

Boniface

born in England but went to Germany to preach the Gospel. There he was made Bishop of Mainz and founded or restored many churches in Bavaria, Thuringia, and Franconia. He is probably best known for destroying the Great Oak of Thor.

Charlemagne

King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and Emperor of what is now known as the Carolingian Empire from 800, holding these titles until his death in 814.

Saxon Capitulary

a series of legal directives issued by Charlemagne during the Saxon Wars (772-804) to force the Saxon people to submit to Frankish rule and Christianity, with severe penalties, including death, for those who resisted. 

Rollo

a Viking leader. In 911 he was given lands around Rouen by the Frankish king Charles the Simple.

Byzantium

the continuation of the Roman Empire centered on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages, lasting from 330 to 1453. 

Iconoclast Controversy

a pivotal period in the Byzantine Empire, centered on the use of religious images (icons) in worship, with iconoclasts (image-breakers) opposing their veneration, while iconophiles (image-lovers) defended them

Methodius & Cyril

Apostles to the Slavs," were 9th-century missionaries who developed the Glagolitic alphabet (later refined into Cyrillic), translated the Bible and liturgy into Old Church Slavonic, and introduced Christianity to the Slavic peoples, fostering a unique cultural identity. 

Kievan Rus

a medieval political federation in modern-day Belarus, Ukraine, and part of Russia

Sui Dynasty

Sui dynasty was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged period of political division since the War of the Eight Princes.

Equal-field System

a Chinese land distribution policy implemented from the Northern Wei dynasty to the mid-Tang dynasty, aiming for equitable land ownership and preventing wealth concentration. 

Grand Canal

a system of interconnected canals linking various major rivers and lakes in North and East China, serving as an important waterborne transport infrastructure between the north and the south during Medieval and premodern China.

Emperor Taizong

the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty for his role in encouraging his father Li Yuan to rebel against the Sui dynasty at Jinyang in 617.

Empress Wu

was Empress of China from 660 to 705, ruling first through others and later in her own right. She ruled as empress consort through her husband Emperor Gaozong and later as empress dowager through her sons Emperors Zhongzong and Ruizong, from 660 to 690.

Feng shan

a historical Chinese ritual performed by emperors to pay homage to heaven and earth

Scripture on Perfect Wisdom for Humane Kings

a Buddhist scripture that was used for over 1,500 years as a basis for what is called "National Protection Buddhism," particularly in China. 

An Lushan Rebellion

a major civil war in China that lasted from 755 to 763, marking a turning point in the Tang Dynasty

Amitabha

Infinite Light