apush unit 4 vocab

geography, immigration, and migration history of the united states

Native American vs. European views of the environment

• natives saw the land as sacred and while they modified it, they did not exploit the land of its resources

• They used the land in a sustainable way unlike Europeans who believed people should exploit the land

Native American vs. European views of property

• Native Americans did not believe individuals could own the land and did not believe in private land

• Instead, lands were lived on communally

• Europeans believed in private land rights and that the land could be owned

Columbian Exchange

• was one of the major immediate consequences of the arrival of Europeans in the Americas

• the exchange of crops, livestock, technologies, and disease between Europe and the Americas

• New crops like corn, potatoes, and tomatoes made their way to Europe while domesticated animals like cows, horses, pigs, and sheep were introduced to the Americas

• Of greatest impact, diseases like smallpox were brought by Europeans to the Americas, devastating the Native American population

Encomienda system

• the Spanish crown gave land and the Native Americans on that land to Spanish conquistadors

• The conquistadors were responsible for caring for those on their land, but in reality that meant they could use the indigenous people as enslaved labor

“Frontier of inclusion”

• meaning the french tended to assimilate to Native American cultures

• They wanted and needed to trade with Native Americans, so they had to adapt to survive and benefit economically

• the french tended to have better relations with Native Americans than the British

Patroon system

dutch large estates to promote food production to feed the growing colony

Roanoke

an English lost colony that temporarily decreased the English effort to colonize the Americas

Joint-stock colony

• sold shares of stock to investors who hoped to profit from resources found in colonies

• English colonies were businesses set up to make a profit for its corporate investors

Frontier of exclusion

• The English transplanted English society, without any attempt to blend with Native Americans

• The colonies developed independent political, economic, and social institutions

“Starving time” at Jamestown

• colonists starved because of the focus on growing tobacco for profit

• some colonists in desperation for food, resorted to cannibalism

Pocahontas / Matoaka

• risked her life and ran to Jamestown to warn John Smith that the Powhatans were preparing to attack

• was taken prisoner after a war began between the Powhatans and the English colonists who desired more land

• learned to read and write in English, was baptized, and given the Christian name Rebecca

• married John Rolfe in 1614, when she was eighteen years-old

• she died at 21 before she was supposed to go back to the americas from England, where she found that John Rolfe had a wife

House of Burgesses

• the first democratic assembly in the colonies

• an attempt by the colonial leadership to get the Virginia planters to support the colony by giving them a role in the political leadership of the colony

Anglo-Powhatan War

• In 1622, one-fourth of the Jamestown population was killed following a surprise attack by the indians

• known as the “Virginia Massacre.”

• The English made a peace offer and held a meeting to negotiate

• At the meeting the English gave poisoned wine to the natives, killing more than two-hundred people

• The English captured and killed the now blind leader, Opechancanough

• indians were losing a war of attrition as colonists were able to continually replace their losses with newcomers from England

Maryland’s founding

• was established as a proprietary colony by George Calvert (Lord Baltimore)

• Calvert wanted a refuge for Catholics who were persecuted in England

• Catholics resented paying taxes to the Anglican Church and their inability to hold public office or attend English universities

• benefited from not having warfare with Native Americans and avoiding the experience of a starving time

• created the Act of Toleration in 1649 to protect the practice of Catholicism

Bacon’s Rebellion

a violent uprising in colonial Virginia led by planter Nathaniel against Governor William Berkeley, sparked by frontier conflict with Native Americans, high taxes, and resentment over elite control, culminating in rebels burning Jamestown; while historically seen as an early fight for liberty, it was also a power struggle revealing deep class divisions, and its aftermath intensified the shift towards chattel slavery and racial segregation in the colonies

Pilgrims

• led by William Bradford, were the more radical group, separating from the Anglican Church because they felt it was too corrupt, which is why they were referred to as the “separatists.”

• initially arrived in New England in November 1620 although they were supposed to settle in the Chesapeake Bay area

• claimed a storm drove them off course and they landed in Provincetown, Massachusetts

Puritans

• a group of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries

• wanted to purify the Anglican Church and to remain part of it

• were persecuted religiously, politically, and economically so they fled initially to the Netherlands

“City on the hill”

• The Puritans also thought they were creating a more perfect society in God’s eyes that would be a model for others to follow

• This concept would remain important in the United States throughout the country’s history

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut

• Thomas Hooker left and founded it in 1636, giving more men the right to vote and run for political office

• It also created three branches of government

Roger Williams and Rhode Island

• founded the colony after he was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for political dissent and his pro-Native American views

• had religious freedom and became the first colony to ban slavery in 1652

Anne Hutchinson

• joined Williams at Rhode Island after she was banished for multiple reasons

• was an antinomian, meaning she believed anybody could communicate directly with God, rather than having to communicate through a Puritan minister

• seen as a challenge to the authority of the Puritan theocracy

• put on trial and while testifying she quoted Scriptures to support her position and showed she was just as knowledgeable about the Bible as the Puritan leadership

• nonetheless she was declared a heretic

• was also seen as a threat because she challenged the traditional family order and gender roles

• She led a weekly women’s group in discussing the Bible

Pequot War

• a massacre rather than a war

• the first major armed conflict between English settlers in New England and a Native American tribe

• established English dominance in the Connecticut River Valley

• Puritans chose to attack them when most of the men were away hunting

• A village in Mystic River, Connecticut was attacked by surprise at dawn with over 600 Indians, mostly women and children, killed

Half-Way Covenant (1662)

extended provisional church membership to the children of church members, increasing church membership and extending the control of Puritan leaders over the colony

King Philip’s (Metacom’s) War (1675)

• a brutal and devastating armed conflict between the English New England Colonies and their Native American allies against a confederation of Native American tribes

• The war ended organized Native American resistance in southern New England, paving the way for unimpeded English colonial expansion

Salem Witch Trials

• occurred in 1692

• mostly middle-aged, wealthy, widowed women were accused of witchcraft

• More than one hundred people were imprisoned and twenty people (including nineteen women) and one dog were executed

• Many of the accused were widowed, economically independent women who challenged gender roles

• Most of the accusers came from western, which was more agrarian, poorer, and more religious

“Middle Passage”

• The slave ships crossed the Atlantic which usually lasted 2-3 months

• Most slaver captains used “tight packing” on these ships

• This meant that the slavers filled the ships with as many enslaved people as possible

• Each enslaved person had a space approximately five and a half feet long, one and a half feet wide and about two feet in height and they laid down for most of the crossing

• Enslaved people were stacked above one another

• “Tight packing” meant more enslaved people died due to disease, but it meant a greater profit for the slavers because more enslaved people would be sold in the Caribbean at the end of the journey

• Some slavers used “loose packing” which ensured a lower rate of death, but also meant fewer enslaved people would be sold at the end of the crossing

• enslaved people often leaped into the ocean and drowned leading slaver crews to place nets alongside the ships to prevent these escapes

• In order to prevent rebellions, enslaved males were chained together and separated from women and children

• Most rebellions occurred before slavers set sail or right after setting sail because the African coast was still in sight

• It is estimated that about one-third of enslaved people died during the journey

English Civil War

• Charles I’s Cavaliers faced off with General Oliver Cromwell’s Roundheads

• lasted between 1642-1651

• Cromwell and the Puritans won the war and Charles I was beheaded

• This bloody war influenced Thomas Hobbes’ beliefs about human nature and his political philosophy that argued for a strong monarchy to control the evil impulses of people

• Cromwell led England from 1653 until his death in 1658

• Following Cromwell’s death, Parliament asked Charles I’s son, Charles II, to take the throne

• This was called the Restoration, as the monarchy was restored, although in a somewhat weakened form

• Beginning with the Restoration, Parliament would begin asserting more power over the monarchy over the next thirty years, culminating with the Glorious Revolution

Restoration

• led to the resumption of colonization in North America

• Six new proprietary colonies were founded

• Parliament would begin asserting more power over the monarchy over the next thirty years, culminating with the Glorious Revolution

South Carolina

• much wealthier, relying on enslaved labor to work rice and indigo plantations

• benefited from having Charleston harbor

• the only colony in which enslaved Africans outnumbered whites

• whites lived in constant fear of slave uprisings

• harsh slave codes were implemented to control the African population

• had the most native american slaves

• Twenty-five percent of the colony’s enslaved population were Native Americans in the early 1700s

• reliance on slavery is important in understanding why this state was at the center of the Confederacy’s formation following the 1860 election

North Carolina

• Charles II granted proprietors the colony in 1663, in thanks for their support in helping him to take the throne

• eventually split into two colonies in 1712 (one of the two colonies)

• one of the original thirteen colonies, initially part of a large proprietary grant, later split and becoming a royal colony in 1729, known for its independent-minded, smaller farmers (especially in the north with tobacco) versus the larger plantation economy (rice/indigo) in the south, developing unique characteristics like squatters and a strong anti-aristocratic streak, and playing a role in the Revolution

New York

• The English defeated the Dutch and renamed the colony

• was a diverse colony due to this history

• It was now home to Dutch, Germans, Finns, English, Swedish, Africans, and various Native American groups

• In 1654, Spanish and Portuguese-speaking Sephardic Jews founded the first Jewish congregation in U.S. history, the Congregation Shearith Israel, in this location

Quakers and Pennsylvania

• another restoration colony

• a religion was founded by George Fox and Margaret Fell

• Fox believed the word of God was found in the human soul, not the Bible, eliminating the need for established churches

• officially called the Society of Friends, rejected predestination and they believed everyone was born with God’s “inner light,” making everyone equal regardless of race and gender

• There was no real hierarchy within the religion, making them very democratic

• dressed simply, in plain black clothes, making it difficult to tell one’s class by appearance

• They did not acknowledge their “superiors” in class by tipping their hats and they refused to use aristocratic titles

• became very emotional in their religious experience

• They were antinomian, emphasizing one’s personal relationship with God

• refused to take religious oaths or pay taxes to support the established Anglican church

• On top of this, they were pacifists

• These beliefs challenged Puritan and Anglican beliefs

• Consequently, they were persecuted in England and English leaders wanted to eliminate them

• a member of this religion was given a land grant in the colonies in 1681

• a unique colony because it was open to everybody regardless of religion, race, or ethnicity

• Native Americans were dealt with fairly and an eventual abolitionist movement was centered there

• were eventually outnumbered and lost control of the government by the time of the Revolutionary War

Georgia

• the last of the original thirteen colonies established

• It was founded by James Oglethorpe in 1733

• The colony served two very different purposes

• Oglethorpe’s goal was to establish a refuge and a second chance for those in debtors’ prison and for the poor in England

• The English government wanted a military buffer to protect the valuable South Carolina colony from the Spanish in Florida

Hector Saint John de Crevecoeur and Letters From an American Farmer

• a French-American author described life in frontier America to European readers

• his book became the first publishing success by an American author in Europe

• argued that Americans were a new people that lived simply and were dedicated to equal opportunity and freedom

• spoke of the American population as a unified country rather than a group of separate colonies

• His work helped spell out the idea of the “American Dream”

• wrote that unlike European countries where populations consisted of a national ethnic group, America was a mixing of various European ethnic groups who were turning into white men

• This new white man excluded Africans and Native Americans

East-West sectional conflict

• European colonists desired freedom on the colonial frontier and this often led to this

• included political, religious, and economic differences

• The east coast tended to be wealthier, mostly English, and Anglican

• The frontier was populated by a diverse population of European ethnic groups who held different religious beliefs and had less wealth

• English on the coastline angered the Scotch-Irish and German settlers in the west by trying to assert its control over the population through taxation and religious establishment

• Each colony had an official church that all of its colonists had to pay taxes to support even if they were not followers of that religion

• This opposition to supporting an established church set up the foundation for separation of church and state

• People in the west wanted to open up more land and that meant fighting Native Americans

• Westerners wanted support from the colonial governments in pushing Native Americans off of their land so colonists could take it

• westerners were often in debt to easterners

• Consequently, ethnic differences added to the political, economic, and religious differences

Pontiac’s Rebellion

• formed a confederacy among Native American nations in the west to defend their land against colonial encroachment

• led attacks against British forts in Detroit and elsewhere

Proclamation Line of 1763

• To avoid having to fight a war against Native Americans in the west, the british passed this

• to curtail colonial expansion west of the Appalachian Mountains

• Colonists were angered by this law and they ignored it, moving west despite the law

• The British found it nearly impossible to enforce this border and prevent the colonists from illegally moving west of the boundary

Paxton Boys

• attacked Native Americans in frustration to the Proclamation Line

• claimed to be defending themselves from raids carried out by Native Americans with the assistance of Conestoga Indians

• killed twenty unarmed Conestoga Indians in response to Pontiac’s Rebellion and the lack of protection by the Pennsylvania state government

• then marched to Philadelphia to demand help from the government

• The state government decided it would do little to stop migration to the West

Louisiana Purchase

the u.s bought this territory from france for $15 million, allowed the u.s empire to spread west, not considering the native americans

Sacagawea, Lewis and Clark

• led the Corps of Discovery expedition across the Louisiana Purchase

• Their trek was ultimately made possible by the guidance of Shoshone Indians, and especially a woman

• her presence was vital as she served as a translator and because Native Americans did not see the expedition as a military one since she and her baby were part of it

• expedition began near St. Louis and followed the Missouri River to the Columbia River and the Pacific Coast

• brought back important information about the Native American nations and the flora and fauna of the land

• It also established the foundation for U.S. expansion across the Mississippi River to the West Coast

Tecumseh and the Prophet

• created a pan-Indian movement to resist U.S. expansion into the Ohio River Valley

• also led a social movement that attempted to preserve Native American cultures from assimilation

• one was taught how to read and write in English by a white family when he was young

• the other had been an alcoholic, but once while he was drinking he had a vision that God told him to save his people

• became a medicine man and began a religious revival movement urging his followers not to drink and to return to their traditional customs

• believed that only armed resistance would stop the U.S. from moving west

• he asked the british for assistance

Battles of Tippecanoe and the Thames

• led by William Henry Harrison against Tecumseh's confederacy (under his brother Tenskwatawa), was a US victory that destroyed Prophetstown, weakening Native resistance and fueling tensions leading to the War of 1812

• was a decisive US win where Harrison's forces defeated British & Native allies, resulting in the death of Tecumseh and the collapse of his confederacy, securing the Northwest Territory for the US

Muskogee / Creek War

a brutal internal conflict within the *** Nation, fueled by internal divisions, British encouragement, and Tecumseh's pan-Indian movement, pitting the traditionalist "Red Sticks" against U.S. forces led by Andrew Jackson and allied ***, ending in a devastating American victory at Horseshoe Bend, the forced land cession of 22 million acres via the Treaty of Fort Jackson, and paving the way for *** removal to Indian Territory

Battle of Horseshoe Bend

• a decisive U.S. victory on March 27, 1814, during the Creek War, in which forces led by Major General Andrew Jackson crushed the Red Sticks, a faction of the Creek Nation who resisted American expansion

• The battle effectively ended the Creek War and resulted in a massive cession of Creek land to the United States

Treaty of Ghent

• The stalemate of the war of 1812 ended with Britain and the United States signing this, officially ending the war

• made clear that the United States would be an independent country

First Seminole War

• Following the War of 1812, General Andrew Jackson invaded Spanish Florida, sparking the war

• The native refusal to surrender their African American members and creation of a refuge for runaway slaves sparked Jackson’s desire to defeat them and take Florida, leading to the conflict, lasting from 1816-1818

2nd Wave of Immigration

• lead to huge increases in urban populations

• Over two million immigrants from northwestern Europe, mostly Ireland and Germany, arrived in the United States between 1840-1860

• Nearly all of these immigrants went to the North, where factory jobs were available

• Immigrants could not find jobs in the South, where enslaved people did most of the labor

Know-Nothings / American Party

• established a third political party in the 1850s

• won fifty-four seats in the House of Representatives and five Senate seats in the 1854 midterm elections and took control of the state government in Massachusetts

• success was concentrated in the Northeast and was short-lived as slavery became the dominant political issue of the late 1850s, overshadowing immigration

Stephen Austin

• received a large land grant in Texas that he promised to populate with three-hundred American families who agreed to become Mexican citizens, convert to Catholicism, and assimilate into Mexican culture

• took over leadership of recruiting the three-hundred families

• These families received the land as promised and some of the original three-hundred families did assimilate, but over time more Americans began entering Texas (Mexico) and as the numbers rose so did resistance to assimilation and to the Mexican government

Texan war for independence

• Texan opposition to the Mexican government centered around paying taxes, and beginning in 1829, Mexico’s abolition of slavery

• Americans decided to break from Mexico, primarily to continue the practice of slavery

• The Mexican dictator, Antonio López de Santa Anna, led the Mexican military to Texas to put down this rebellion against Mexican law by Texans and their Tejano (Mexicans from Texas who supported independence) allies

• Santa Anna led his troops in defeating Americans at the Alamo, after 190 Americans and Tejanos managed to hold off 5,000 poorly armed Mexicans for two weeks

• All the Americans and Tejanos died and over 1,500 Mexicans were killed at the Alamo

• Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign a treaty while captive

• Texas became an self reliant country in 1836, called the Lone Star Republic

Oregon Country

• included land between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, from the southern boundary of Alaska (Russian territory) to northern California (Mexican territory)

• In the Convention of 1818, Britain and the United States agreed to jointly occupy the region

• Britain claimed it due to prior discovery and exploration while the U.S. claims were made based on the growing population of Americans in the region as “*** Fever” had spread in the United States

• (Native Americans who were the first in the region by thousands of years and largest in population did not count in the eyes of Britain and the United States)

Oregon Trail

• were being traveled by thousands of Americans every year in the late 1830s and early 1840s

• The journey west began in Independence, Missouri

• The wagon trains took between five and seven months to cross the Great Plains and the Great Basin to the west

• Each wagon train included ten to thirty wagons (also called “prairie schooners”)

• The wagons traveled along the Missouri and Platte Rivers west through Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming and then across the Rocky Mountains

• At the Great Salt Lake in Utah, wagon trains either took the *** or California Trail across the Sierra Nevada Mountains

Spot Resolution

a whig representative, lincoln, challenged president polk’s decision to go to war with mexico by saying that polk needed to state the exact spot where mexico attacked america. lincoln did this because he believed that the attack was on mexican soil, not american, therefore disproving the need to go to war and he was correct but ignored by polk

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

• ended the Mexican-American War in 1848

• gave the United States the northern half of Mexico, including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado

• In return the United States paid Mexico $15 million and promised to respect the culture, rights, and property of Mexican citizens that now were living in the United States and not to discriminate against them, this would not be respected

Gadsden Purchase

the united states acquired Mexican land in present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico for $10 million so that a southern transcontinental railroad line could be built more easily through the Rocky Mountains in 1854

Manifest destiny

the belief that americans were destined by god to move west in north america

California Gold Rush

• it was discovered at Sutter’s Fort in the Sacramento Valley

• Word about the discovery eventually spread leading to this event

• By 1849, people were arriving from all over the country and the world to mine

• Consequently, California’s population grew from about ten thousand people in 1848 to one-hundred thousand people in 1850 and three-hundred eighty thousand people by 1860

• Due to the rapid growth in population, California became a state in 1850, just two years after the United States acquired it in the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

• had a devastating impact on Native Americans

• It is estimated that 100,000 California Indians were killed between 1845-1870, making this period the most disastrous for Native American peoples in U.S. history

• Native Americans were targeted so the land would be opened to mining

Mining

• became an industry dominated by big businesses

• people who remained after the gold rush became wage laborers

• Chinese immigrants were among those used to fill this labor need and they became the targets of whites who saw immigrant labor as a threat to their jobs

Cattle ranching and cowboys

• the other major economic activity in the west

• were very different from the ones portrayed in Hollywood

• had the difficult job of herding cattle hundreds of miles across various trails from Texas to the railroad lines in Kansas and Nebraska

• Trains transported cattle to the midwest where they were slaughtered

• Many were Mexican, African American, or Native American

• Americans learned techniques and adopted equipment from Mexican vaqueros

• The use of barbed wire ended the “long drive” as land between Texas and Nebraska was closed off

• Another factor leading to the end of this was a series of severe blizzards during the winter of 1886-1887

• Thousands of cattle froze to death during these blizzards, driving many ranchers out of business

• did not last long, but the romance and myth around gunslinging people remains prevalent even in the present day

Sand Creek Massacre

• in November 1864 Cheyenne Indians led by Black Kettle were attacked in Colorado after the Cheyenne had been promised safety and protection by the territorial governor

• Colonel J.M. Chivington, a former Protestant minister, led the attack

• During the attack, Black Kettle waved an American flag and a white flag as a sign of peace

• Over 400 (out of 700) Cheyenne were killed and their bodies were mutilated

• Chivington and his men decorated their weapons and caps with the body parts of massacred Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians

• General Nelson Miles, who commanded the U.S. Army from 1895-1903, called the massacre the “foulest and most unjustifiable crime in the annals of America.”

Red Cloud’s War

• was fought in Wyoming and Montana between 1866-1868

• The Oglala Lakota Sioux fought this war to protect their lands from the completion of the Bozeman Trail, which was meant to connect Fort Laramie, Wyoming to the Montana gold fields

• The Oglala Lakota Sioux fought the U.S. to a standstill in 1866-1867 after the warriors annihilated Captain William Fetterman’s entire command in 1866, following Fetterman’s boast that with eighty men he could ride through the entire Sioux Nation

• The U.S. army was unable to defend both the Bozeman Trail and the construction of the Union Pacific railroad at the same time so the government signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)

Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)

• The U.S. agreed to abandon the Bozeman Trail and Red Cloud promised peace

• The Great Sioux Reservation was created in South Dakota and the government promised to build schools and provide rations and annuities for 30 years

• The Oglala Lakota were expected to become farmers and hunting grounds were provided in northern Nebraska

• also guaranteed the Black Hills of South Dakota to the Sioux

• it was agreed that seventy-five percent of adult males would have to approve the sale of Sioux land for any sale to take place

• Pressures on the Sioux intensified and leadership of the Sioux was passed to younger men like Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull

• Peace in the region would be short-lived

Great Sioux War

• gold was discovered in the Black Hills of South Dakota in 1874, touching off a gold rush in 1875

• The Black Hills were important to the native americans for its hunting grounds and religious purposes and the land had been guaranteed to them in the Treaty of Fort Laramie

• The government offered to purchase the land but them, but sitting bull declined

• they had been promised their land for “as long as the grass shall grow.”

• Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer illegally went into the Black Hills to search for gold and he exaggerated to the public of the amount of gold there

• Red Cloud asked President Grant to stop the gold miners from entering his territory

• Grant responded that he could not prevent the miners from entering

• Instead, Grant told the Lakota to give up their land or they would lose their rations

• Under public pressure to take the gold (and land), President Grant chose war over treaty obligations

• The Lakota had to choose between ceding the land, starving, or going to war because grant said they could only get rations if they gave up the land

• was the largest U.S. military operation between the Civil War and the Spanish-American War of 1898

• Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse led them in retaliation to the breaking of the Treaty of Fort Laramie

• Prospectors who trespassed were killed

• Custer took over 600 men to the edge of the reservation along the Little Big Horn River in Montana to search for Sitting Bull

• Custer’s army was completely decimated at the Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876 by a large army of Lakota and cheyenne

• Custer was glorified, turning an invasion of Lakota lands into a noble self-defense against a larger number of “savages,” thus turning the U.S. war against them into self-defense, rather than “the work of invasion, conquest, and empire”

• The U.S. Army hoped to defeat Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse and place all the Lakota and Cheyennes on reservations

• The U.S. Army chased Crazy Horse and 800 of his men across Montana and the Dakotas before they surrendered in 1877

• sitting bull escaped and crazy horse was arrested and killed

• They were confined to reservations and Congress passed a law taking the Black Hills despite the fact that only 10% of the Sioux adult males agreed to the giveaway

Nez Perce War

• gold was discovered on a native american reservation

• In 1873, President Grant gave them the rights to half of the Wallowa Valley as growing numbers of settlers began arriving there, in the hopes of keeping the peace

• Under pressure from territorial representatives, Grant took back that agreement in 1875

• Gold seekers demanded access to the land and the government responded by shrinking the size of the reservation by 90%

• they were compensated with less than ten cents per acre

• In June 1876, two farmers killed a warrior wrongly accused of horse theft

• warriors sought revenge when justice did not follow this murder, leading to the war

• natives defeated the U.S. Army at the Battle of White Bird Canyon despite being outnumbered two to one

• After fighting between the U.S. Army and the natives continued, Chief Joseph led them on a long trek from Oregon toward Canada to avoid ongoing fighting

• they fled to the Crow reservation who sided with the U.S. Army and forced them off of the reservation and provided warriors to help the army capture the tribe

• they ran from the U.S. Army for over 1,400 miles until they were captured less than forty miles from the U.S.-Canada border

• the natives humiliated the U.S. army in battle after battle so there was a desire to capture and punish them rather than letting them flee to Canada

• Upon surrender, they were promised a return to Oregon, but instead they were sent to Indian Territory in Oklahoma

• After being captured by the U.S. Army in 1877, more than half of the natives died in U.S. custody before they were released in 1885

• Nearly all of the children died

Apache War

• they fought the U.S. Army between 1872-1886 throughout the New Mexico and Arizona territories, as the U.S. tried to place them on reservations

• Geronimo (a mystic and powerful figure in the eyes of this tribe) finally surrendered in 1886 when he was down to thirty warriors

• Geronimo’s capture brought about the end of violent Native American resistance

• However, this was not the end of violence against native americans

• Geronimo was held as a prisoner of war until his death in 1909, making him the longest-held prisoner of war in U.S. history

Ghost Dance

• One example of cultural and spiritual resistance against white encroachment

• began when a Paiute Indian (in Nevada) named Wovoka (Jack Wilson to his white friends) preached a religion that promised a return to a traditional indigenous lifestyle would reunite its followers with their ancestors if they gave up alcohol, lived in peace, and followed rituals including this

• Wovoka also promised that whites would disappear and Native Americans would reinherit the land

• Wovoka had a vision during a solar eclipse in 1889 and he believed God told him that whites would be removed from the land in 1891, and until then, the ritual needed to be practiced and good relations with whites had to be kept

• This religion spread rapidly across the Great Plains among many Native American nations

• believed that the world would soon end and that Native Americans, including the dead of the past, would inherit the earth

• Native Americans would glimpse the future paradise

• White missionaries wanted to convert Native Americans to Christianity so they outlawed the practice

• This type of non-violent, spiritual resistance was also seen as a threat by the U.S. military

“Battle” of Wounded Knee

• U.S. soldiers went after the Sioux leader, Sitting Bull, to try to put an end to the Ghost Dance in 1890

• Simultaneously, the Lakota were falsely accused of stockpiling weapons

• The U.S. army decided to arrest Sitting Bull, capture weapons, and stop the Ghost Dance

• As the army tried to arrest Sitting Bull at his cabin, a shootout occurred and Sitting Bull was killed in December 1890

• Two weeks later, U.S. soldiers went to put an end to the practice of the Ghost Dance, to confiscate weapons, and to move the Lakotas to a reservation

• The soldiers found few weapons

• A young man did want to surrender his rifle without being compensated, so when soldiers grabbed the rifle, a shot was accidentally fired in the scuffle

• Soldiers immediately opened fire

• More than 200 Sioux were massacred as women and children fled in all direction

• Twenty-five soldiers were killed, mostly if not entirely, by friendly fire

• Many Sioux froze to death in subzero temperatures after being wounded in the attack

Charles Eastman

• was the only doctor on the Pine Ridge reservation

• He was not immediately allowed to treat any of the victims of the massacre

• Eventually, he managed to rescue eleven people, including two infants

• was a Sioux Indian who was educated at Dartmouth College and became a doctor

• He was raised in traditional Sioux culture, before being sent to a boarding school and taking a new name

• He returned to the Pine Ridge reservation in 1890 to care for his people

• was an activist and called for the government to allow Native Americans to live however they chose, whether that meant to assimilate or not

• He insisted he could be both a Sioux Indian and an American

Helen Hunt Jackson and A Century of Dishonor

• written by a progressive author in 1881

• The book chronicled the century of broken treaties and promises by the U.S. government in its dealing with Native Americans

Dawes Allotment Act (1887)

• As the U.S. took over much of the west, the government instituted a new policy toward Native Americans

• attempted to dismantle reservations to force Native Americans to assimilate

• said Native Americans needed to choose between “extermination or civilization” with the law

• attempted to abolish reservations and allot 160-acre lands to individual Native Americans as private property

• provided the legal basis for breaking treaties and taking more Native American land

• remained the U.S. government’s Native American policy until 1934

Oklahoma land rush

• President Harrison announced that land in (Indian Territory) would be opened to white settlement in April 1889

• This announcement led to this as 100,000 early arrivals (called “Sooners”) entered

• began with a pistol shot as people ran to claim the land

• once again, land that had been promised to Native Americans was taken when it was desired by the U.S. government or white settlers

Boarding schools

• To further the effort of assimilation under the Dawes Act, these were established to assimilate young Native Americans

• most famous was the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, located in Pennsylvania

• students had to cut their hair, change their names and style of dress, and give up their language and culture

• Some students committed suicide while disease killed others

• While many Native Americans did assimilate at these boarding schools, others refused to

Homestead Act of 1862

gave 160 acres of land in the west at a low cost to families after they lived on the land for five years, despite this many families struggled economically

Exodusters

• Between 1865-1880, forty thousand African Americans sharecroppers left the South and moved west to Kansas, they were called this

• To stop thes from leaving, armed whites closed the Mississippi River and threatened to sink boats carrying them

• White landowners tried to prevent sharecroppers from leaving because they did not want to lose a labor source they did not have to pay

1890 census and the Turner Thesis

• announced the closing of the frontier

• argued that the United States needed a frontier

• argued that the frontier provided a “safety valve” for discontent

• In other words, people could always move west if they were struggling

• also believed that the frontier played a crucial role in the development of the American identity

• him and his supporters worried the American identity might now be forever altered and democracy would suffer consequently

Audubon Society

• some Americans responded to industrialization and urbanization by desiring to protect the land and the environment

• was founded by George Bird Grinnell and became one of the earliest conservationist societies in the country’s history

• was founded to protect birds from the growth of industry and pollution

• was named after an ornithologist, naturalist, and artist

• Early in the 19th century, they attempted to paint and document all the birds found in the United States

Third Wave of Immigration (1890-1924)

• lasted from 1890-1924, consisting mostly of Eastern and Southern European immigrants

• were mostly Catholic and Jewish, fleeing for economic reasons or religious persecution

Rock Springs Massacre

• In 1885, five hundred Chinese miners were attacked and twenty-eight were killed by white miners in wyoming

• They were killed because white miners wanted to eliminate competition for jobs

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

banned all chinese immigration

Hull House

• In 1889, Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr opened this, a settlement house for immigrants in Chicago

• provided day-care and kindergarten for the children of working mothers, English classes, art and theater classes, helped people find jobs, and provided a meeting place for unions