A&P Lecture Test 1

Anatomy

the study of the structure of something

Physiology

the study of the function of things

Embryology

The study of the embryos (first 8 weeks)

Developmental Biology

the development of the zygote to death

Cell Biology

the study of cell structure and function

Histology

the study of the microscopic structure of the body (tissues using microscopes)

Gross Anatomy

the study of the structure of the body visible to the naked eye.

Systemic Anatomy

the study of the body systems and their interrelationships, focusing on groups of organs that function together.

Regional anatomy

the study of ALL of the systems of one particular part of the body ie.

the head, muscles, bones, tissues, skin, etc.

Surface Anatomy

the structure of things you can see without opening the body

(visualization and palpation)

Imaging Anatomy

learning the anatomy as you see it through x-rays, ct scans, ultrasounds, MRI,

Pathological Anatomy

the study of what goes wrong in the body; structural changes associated with disease

Neurophysiology

study of functions of the nervous system

Endocrinology

the branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, hormones, and their effects on the body.

Cardiovascular physiology

study of the heart and blood vessels

Immunology

the study of the immune system and how it fights of pathogens

Respiratory Physiology

study of the lungs and how they work

Renal Physiology

the study of the kidneys

Exercise Physiology

changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular activity

Pathophysiology

changes in function associated with disease and aging

Levels of structural organization and body systems

Chemical Level

Cellular Level

Tissue Level

Organ Level

Organismal Level

Integumentary System

• primary function is protection from the outside world;

• protects from abrasions and the sun,

• helps retain water,

• largest sensory organ,

• makes vitamin D,

• regulates temperature by sweating,

• insulates us,

• made of skin, glands, hair, and nails

Skeletal System

• primary function is for support and protection,

• all of vital organs are at least partially enclosed in bones;

• stores calcium

• made up of all of the bones, joints, and various cartilages;

Muscular System

• primary function is movement and maintaining posture;

• enables movement of the body and its parts,

• generates heat; -

• made up of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles.

Nervous System

• very important it is one of the two control systems in the body,

• collects information and sends out signals to the body

• made up of the brain and spinal cord;

Endocrine System

• Regulates body activities by releasing hormones (chemical messengers transported in blood from endocrine gland or tissue to target organ).

• doesn’t move as fast as the nervous system

Cardiovascular System

Functions :

• transports oxygen from lungs out

  to tissues,

• brings carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs,

• moves water and nutrients throughout the body and waste to kidneys to be eliminated.

Made up of :

• heart

• blood vessels

• blood

Lymphatic / Immune System

Functions :

• Returns proteins and fluid to blood;

• carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood;

• contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B cells and T cells that protect against disease-causing microbes.

Made of :

• lymph plasma

• lymph nodes

• lymphatic vessels

• spleen

• thymus

• tonsils

Respiratory System

• brings oxygen from the atmosphere to the blood; responsible for gas exchange,

• oxygen needs to get into the blood and carbon dioxide to get out of the blood

Digestive System

Functions:

• breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed,

• eliminates undigested food and waste from the body.

Made of:

-GI Tract (runs from mouth to anus)

• mouth

• esophagus

• stomach

• intestine

• liver

• pancreas

• gallbladder

• rectum

• anus

• pharynx

Urinary System

Functions:

• filters blood to remove waste and excess substances,

• regulates blood pressure, electrolyte balance, and fluid balance (pH balance).

Composed of:

• kidneys

• ureters

• bladder

• urethra

Reproductive System

Functions:

• produces gametes offspring (sperm and eggs)

• facilitates reproduction and hormonal regulation.

Composed of:

• male reproductive organs
  female reproductive organs

• testes, ovaries, uterus,

• prostate, seminal vesicles, vagina.

Six most important life processes (characteristics) of the human body

• Metabolism

• Responsiveness

• Movement

• Growth

• Differentiation

• Reproduction

Metabolism

is the sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body

(anabolism + catabolism = metabolism)

Anabolism

(consumes enery) to build larger molecules from smaller units, facilitating growth and repair.

Catabolism

(releases energy) breaks down larger molecules into smaller units, providing energy for metabolic processes.

Responsiveness

the ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment, ensuring survival and adaptation (maintaning homeostasis)

Movement

includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells.

Growth

is an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or both

Appositional Growth

(growth from the surface) of a tissue or organ, resulting in an increase in thickness or diameter.

Interstitial Growth

(growth from the inside) of a tissue or organ, resulting in an increase in length.

Hyperplasia

(increase in the number of cells) in an organ or tissue, leading to its enlargement.

hypertrophy

increase in the size of an organ or tissue) due to the enlargement of its cells.

Differentiation

when a cell goes from a nonspecialized state to a specialized state (stem cells)

Reproduction

the production of a new individual

Homeostasis

the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes (equilibrium balance)

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

fluid outside cells

Interstitial fluid

extracellular fluid in the narrow spaces between cells

Lymph

extracellular fluid in blood

Cerebrospinal Fluid

extracellular fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord

Synovial Fluid

extracellular fluid inside joints

Aqueous Humor

extracellular fluid in the eye that helps maintain intraocular pressure and provides nutrients to the eye.

Intracellular Fluid

fluid inside the cell (cytosol)

Negative Feedback System

reverses a change in the controlled condition (response is the opposite of the stimulus)

Examples:

• Blood pressure

• Blood glucose

• Blood temperature

• Calcium levels

Positive Feedback System

the response to the stimulus is to reinforce the stimulus

Examples:

• childbirth

• breastfeeding

• bloodclotting

Receptor

detect change and send information to the control center in a feedback loop.

Control center

knows which response to take

Effectors

cell or organ that can affect the controlled condition

Negative Feedback System (Cold)

• Stimulus: 🌡 Body temperature decreases

• Receptor: 🧠 Thermoreceptors detect the low temperature.

• Control Center: 🧠 Hypothalamus — determines the body is too cold.

• Effector: 💪 Skeletal muscles and blood vessels

• Response: 🥶 Shivering produces heat, and blood vessels constrict to reduce heat loss.

• Return to Homeostasis: 🌡 Body temperature increases back to its normal range.

Body Temperature Negative Feedback (Hot)

• Receptor: 🌡 Thermoreceptors in the skin and hypothalamus
  → Detect that body temperature is too high.

• Control center: 🧠(Brain) Hypothalamus
  → Receives the information and decides what to do.

• Effector: 💦 Sweat glands
  → Produce sweat to cool the body.

• Response: 💧 Sweating and increased heat loss
  → Sweat evaporates and cools the body.

• Return to Homeostasis: 🌡 Body temperature returns to its normal range

Positive Feedback System (Breastfeeding)

Breastfeeding

• Stimulus: Baby suckles the nipple.

• Receptor: Sensory receptors detect sucking.

• Control center: Hypothalamus → pituitary gland.

• Effector: Mammary glands.

• Response: Milk is released.

• Positive feedback: More sucking → more milk release.

• Stops: Baby stops nursing.

Positive Feedback System (Blood clotting)

Blood Clotting

Stimulus: Blood vessel is damaged.

Receptor/Effector: Platelets detect the damage and become activated.

Response: Activated platelets attract more platelets.

Stops: A clot forms and bleeding stops.

Positive Feedback System (Childbirth)

• Stimulus: Baby pushes against cervix.

• Receptor: Stretch receptors.

• Control center: Brain/hypothalamus → pituitary.

• Effector: Uterus.

• Response: Stronger contractions.

• Positive feedback: Stronger contractions → more pressure → even stronger contractions.

• Stops: Baby is delivered.

standing straight up with palms forward is ?

Anatomical Position

lying face down

Supine