Theories of Personality - Test 3

My top 5 character strengths

1. Self Regulation

2. Honesty

3. Fairness

4. Judgment

5. Prudence

6. Spirituality

Self Regulation

regulating what one feels and does; being disciplined; controlling one’s appetites and emotions

Honesty

speaking the truth but more broadly presenting oneself in a genuine way and acting in a sincere way; being without pretense; taking responsibility for one’s feeling and actions

Fairness

treating all people the same according to notions of fairness and justice; not letting personal feelings bias decisions about others; giving everyone a fair chance

Judgement

Thinking things through and examining them from all sides; not jumping to conclusions; being able to change one’s mind in light of evidence; weighing all evidence carefully

Prudence

being careful about one’s choices; not taking undue risks; not saying or doing things that might later be regretted.

Spirituality

having coherent beliefs about the higher purpose and meaning of the universe; knowing where one fits within the larger scheme; having beliefs about the meaning of events and life that shape, conduct, and provide comfort.

What does PERMA stand for?

P - Positive emotion

E - Engagement
R - Relationships 

M - Meaning

A - Accomplishments

What did Seligman later add to the PERMA model?

He added a few more like low negative emotions, low loneliness, and good physical health

What makes something a psychological disorder?

Mostly a matter of how severe it is and if it is seriously negatively affecting your functioning or hurting others

6 features of personality disorder

1. Experiencing problems in most aspects of life (relationships, cognition, etc)

2. Being inflexible in behavior

3. Experiencing severe life problems 

4. Showing signs of a personality disorder since adolescence 

5. The behaviors are not solely due to another mental disorder 

6. The behaviors cannot be due to a physical disorder

Cluster A

Weird - schizoid, schizotypal, paranoid

Cluster B

Wild - antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic

Cluster C

worried - avoidant, dependent, obsessive compulsive personality disorder

How is obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) different from obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?

• Obsessive-compulsive PD is extreme perfectionism that causes impairment in life

• OCD is characterized by intrusive thoughts (specific fears) and then compulsive behaviors used to alleviate the fears

(e.x. intense fear of housing burning, so heaving to leave work to check on it)

The “oids”

• Paranoid - avoid relationships, because they believe everyone is out to get them/ do them active harm

• Schizoid - avoid relationships, because they simply have no interest in them

• Avoidant - avoid relationships, because they fear others will not like them/reject them

How is avoidant personality disorder different from social anxiety?

• Avoidant PD involves severely low self-esteem because they believe themselves to be inferior, incompetent, and deserving of the rejection they anticipate from others.

• Those with Social anxiety disorder may have low self esteem in social situations, self-esteem but do not actually believe they are inferior or or worthy of outside judgment

How is schizotypal different from schizophrenia?

• Schizotypal PD involves odd beliefs, social anxiety, and trouble with relationships, but is still in touch with reality.

• Schizophrenia involves true hallucinations.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Involves talk therapy with a therapist to replace negative thoughts and actions with productive behaviors that make the individual feel equipped to overcome any difficult moment

e.g. thought records, exposure, behavioral experiments, cognitive restructuring.

Study on how people view stress

  Those who experienced high stress but did not believe it to be harmful were at the lowest risk of dying, even less risk than those who did not experience stress AND did not view it harmfully.

How can you positively reframe stress?

•   “Stress can spur me to action” If I have mild stress about an exam, that can help motivate me to study” 

• “I am stressed about my job/kids, because I care about it/them. At least I care!”

Two major ways of studying how personality changes over the lifespan

1. cross-sectional studies 

2. longitudinal studies

Cross-sectional - snapchat method 

Measures different people (e.g., 20, 40, 60-year-olds) on a personality trait all at one moment in time and compares them.

• Pro - fast & easy 

• Con - not as scientifically rigorous/does not rule out confounds as well

Longitudinal - life story method

Following the exact same group of people for decades, testing them at age 20, 40, 60 on a personality trait

• Pro - more scientifically rigorous 

• Con - takes a long time/harder to do, and you get attrition from people dropping out or even dying.

Childhood temperament

Genetically based behavioral tendencies seen in young children

Example: some babies are more restless, some are easier to calm, and some are more adaptable.

Does early childhood temperament predict adult personality?

Childhood temperament factors are reasonably good at predicting personality during early adulthood.

In a longitudinal study, temperament at age 4.5 predicted about a third of the variance in personality at age 18

What is the Mischel Marshmallow study, how it worked, and its outcomes.

a 1960s - 1970s Stanford University experiment where preschoolers were offered a choice between an immediate treat of one marshmallow or two marshmallows if they waited for a short period without eating the first one. 

Results: : The children who delayed gratification had higher SAT scores, lower body mass index, higher educational attainment, better interpersonal skills, and less substance use later in life.

The five child temperament constructs

1. positive affect

2. affiliativeness 

3. effortful control 

4. negative affect 

5. orienting sensitivity 

How do temperament traits correspond to the Big Five?

positive affect (joyful baby) → extraversion

affiliativeness (cuddly baby) → agreeableness

effortful control (focused baby) → conscientiousness 

negative affect (“fussy” baby) → neuroticism 

orienting sensitivity (curious baby) → openness 

Schizophrenia is different from schizotypal personality disorder in that the latter involves hallucinations and the former involves odd beliefs, but not necessarily full-blown hallucinations.

False 

Which two of the big five are most associated with good work performance?

High conscientiousness and low neuroticism

Which two of the big five are most associated with relationship success/satisfaction?

High agreeableness and low neuroticism

Which of the following is true about how having children relates to changes in personality?

Having 2 or more children increases neuroticism, particularly for those high on neuroticism to begin with.

According to the presentation, which of the following has been shown to be the biggest risk factor for the development of personality disorders, particularly Cluster B?

Abuse and neglect (Adverse Childhood Experiences

According to the Harvard study on stress mentioned in the presentation, what was the key finding?

Those who had high stress but believed it wasn't harmful had the lowest risk of dying.

A key distinction between Schizoid PD and Avoidant PD is that both involve social isolation. However, the person with Schizoid PD is isolated because they ________, while the person with Avoidant PD is isolated because they ________.

have no desire for relationships / fear rejection and criticism

Sarah is invited to a team dinner. She declines, thinking, 'They're probably just inviting me to be polite. I bet they talk about me behind my back. That comment my boss made about my report was a hidden insult, and I'm sure they're all laughing about it.' She consistently believes others are trying to deceive or harm her, even without evidence. This pattern best describes:

Paranoid PD

Which of the following is one of the six general features of personality disorders described in the presentation?

Being inflexible in behavior.

A volunteer spends every Saturday at an animal shelter. They find this work deeply fulfilling because they are 'dedicating time to something greater than ourselves.' Which PERMA component does this behavior best represent?

Meaning

Liam lives alone, works as a remote data entry clerk, and has all his groceries delivered. He has no friends and never speaks to his family. When a colleague tries to start a friendly chat, Liam gives one-word answers and seems completely uninterested. He doesn't feel lonely and is content with his solitude, finding all social interaction to be a pointless chore. This pattern best describes:

Schizoid PD

A person believes that the way the clouds are shaped in the morning is a special sign for them. They also feel they can 'sense' the 'auras' of people who walk by and sometimes feel like a dead relative is in the room with them. While these beliefs are strange, the person can acknowledge they 'sound odd' when pressed. This pattern of odd beliefs and perceptual illusions is most characteristic of:

Schizotypal PD

At any party, Dana is the 'life of it.' She wears flashy clothing, tells overly dramatic stories in a loud voice, and flirts inappropriately with her friends' partners. She seems to need all eyes on her at all times. When her friend starts talking about a recent engagement, Dana quickly interrupts to tell a story about her own 'wild' night out, bringing the focus back to herself. This pattern best describes:

Histrionic PD

Paul, a junior executive, brags constantly about his 'brilliance.' He believes he is 'special' and should only associate with other high-status people. He submitted a team project under his own name. When a senior partner gave him minor feedback, Paul flew into a rage, dismissing the partner as 'jealous' and 'incompetent' for not recognizing his genius. He lacks empathy for his teammates. This pattern best describes:

Narcissistic PD

Greg is managing a team project. He insists on controlling every single aspect, from the font on the slides to the exact wording of every bullet point. He forces the team to stay late re-doing work that was 'good enough' because it wasn't 'perfect.' His need for control and perfection is so rigid that the team is falling behind, and he has trouble adapting when a new requirement is added. This pattern best describes:

Obsessive-Compulsive PD

David desperately wants to join a local community choir. He practices singing every day and even bought the sheet music. However, he's never gone to a rehearsal. He knows the other members will think his voice is terrible, that they will criticize him, and that he won't fit in. After all, he believes to his core that he is no good and can't conribute much. The fear of being disliked and rejected is so intense that he stays home, feeling lonely. This pattern best describes:

Avoidant PD

A musician is enjoying practicing a difficult piece and becomes so completely absorbed in the task that they lose track of time and feel 'in the zone.' According to the PERMA model, this experience is a perfect example of:

Engagement

Which of the following components is NOT part of Martin Seligman's original PERMA model of well-being?

Low Loneliness

Alex is so preoccupied with rules, lists, and 'the right way' of doing things that he never finishes a project. His coworkers find him rigid and stubborn. Ben is distressed by constant, unwanted intrusive thoughts that his house will burn down, so he feels compelled to check the stove 30 times before leaving. Alex's pattern is characteristic of ________, while Ben's is characteristic of ________.

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) / Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Maria's relationships are always intense and chaotic. She will meet someone and believe they are 'perfect' and her 'soulmate.' A week later, if they do something minor like cancel a date, she will 'despise' them and call them 'evil.' She has a history of self-harm and often feels 'empty inside,' leading to impulsive behaviors like binge-drinking. This pattern best describes:

Borderline PD

According to the presentation, "quantum change" is a radical, fast, and rare shift in personality. Based on the research by Miller and C'de Baca, which of the following is NOT listed as a common trigger for this type of change?

Entering a stable, long-term romantic relationship for the first time.

Individuals with paranoid personality disorder avoid other people because they assume everyone is out to get them, whereas those with schizoid personality disorder are simply not interested in relationships because they do not really bring them pleasure or joy.

True

Which of the following is consistent with the concept of maturation in personality?

It is a pattern of people becoming more conscientious, agreeable, and less neurotic particularly in young adult to middle adult years of age

Which of these does NOT fit under Cluster B for personality disorders?

Dependent Personality Disorder

Which of the following statements is most likely true?

Neuroticism is more likely to predict losing a job than losing a job increasing in neuroticism.

What is the key difference between the 'odd beliefs' in Schizotypal PD and the 'delusions' in Schizophrenia?

Odd beliefs are more flexible; delusions are more unshakable.

How do Big Five traits typically change over the lifespan?

Higher Conscientiousness, Higher Agreeableness, and lower Neuroticism

What is mean-level change and Rank-order consistency? 

Mean-level changes - shifts in average scores with age

Rank-order consistency - comparing someone to the average person of the same age

What is Quantum Change?

radical and fast change in personality

What leads to Quantum change?

  1. Profound negative events (hitting rock bottom)

2. Mystical, transcendent experiences

3. Confronting Mortality (Near-Death or Acute Crisis

Maturation of Personality

the process of psychological change as people age, where they tend to become more emotionally stable, agreeable, and conscientious

Social Investment Theory

Personality changes due to our adult social roles and responsibilities - such as work, parenting, relationships.

WOOP

• W – wish – what specific behavior/aspect of a personality trait do you wish to change.

• O – outcomes – what are all the benefits that would come if you made the change

• O – obstacle – what are some barriers/that could get in the way of your change

• P – plan – get together a plan for overcoming the obstacles

The Hudson and Fraley Study

• Experimental group: 1.) Completed big five measure, 2.) Given feedback about scores, 3.) Asked if there were any they wanted to change & were training in how to formulate specific action-oriented goals to change those traits addressing situations and barriers 4.) For 16 weeks, reported on how much they had engaged in specific behaviors related to each of the big five they wanted to change.

• Control group: Completed big five personality measure, 2.) Given feedback about scores, 3.) For 16 weeks, just reported on how they had recently displayed that trait.

Results from Hudson & Fraley (2017) study:

• Participants in the experimental condition did show significant changes in self-reported behaviors related to the personality traits they wanted to change AND in the direction that they wanted.

Interventions to change Personality

• General Interventions - general strategies that can be applied to change ANY trait, in theory

ex: The Hudson and Fraley Study 

• Targeted interventions - interventions tailored to be specific trait wanting to change                                                                                                                ex: engaging in a forgiveness mediation periodically to improve forgiveness