Psychology - Unit 1: Research Methods

Scientific Method

a systematic process used to investigate the world, to gain new knowledge, or test existing ideas. A key feature is that it relies on empirical evidence and that the tests can be reproduced by others

Falsification

argues that for a claim or theory to be considered scientific, it must be tested in a way that could potentially prove it false - not testing if it is true

Experiment

a structured study that psychologists use to investigate whether one variable has a cause-and-effect influence on another. Experiments create quantitative data (numbers) or qualitative data (words used for further analysis.)

Independent Variable (IV)

the factor that a researcher manipulates in an experiment to observe its effects on another variable.

Dependent variable (DV)

the factor being measured in an experiment to see how it is affected by changes in the independent variable.

Hypothesis

a prediction about now one variable will affect another in a study

True Experiment

a type of experiment. These experiments involve psychologists randomly assigning participants to control groups. This helps reduce bias and increases the reliability of cause-and-effect conclusions.

Quasi-experiments

Involves psychologists creating control groups with specific differences (age, gender, occupation). This helps researchers focus on similar characteristics of participants. Quasi =prefix, “almost"

Experimental Hypothesis

predicts a relationship between the IV and the DV with a certain outcome from manipulating the IV.

Null Hypothesis

predicts that there will be no effect of the IV on the DV, meaning any observed difference is due to chance.

Control Group

tested without manipulating an independent variable

Research designs

refers to a researchers strategy for investigating the researcher’s problem + testing their hypothesis (can affect validity)

Repeated measures design

one sample of participants receives each condition of an experiment, each participant does all conditions

Confounding variable

external factor in a study that is related to both the supposed cause and the supposed effect (can distort the cause + effect relationship)

Order effects

change in participants’ responses due to the sequence in which experimental conditions, stimuli, or questions presented rather than the conditions themselves

Practice effect

improvement in performance results from repeated exposure

Independent samples design

Participants experience/do one condition only

Matched pairs design

match participant based on a trait

Replication crisis

refers to growing recognition that many psychological studies have not been successfully replicated

External validity

the degree (high or low) to which research results can be generalized to real-world situations, people, and contexts

selection bias

occurs when the participants selected for a study are not representative of the larger population being studied

self selection

participants self-select into the study (e.g. volunteers with strong opinions)

Opportunity (convenience) samples

chosen because easily available (e.g. ppl walking in subway station, students, colleagues), selects participants based on their availability

Random Samples

probability sample where every individual in the target population has an equal chance of being selected to participate

Stratified samples

where population is divided into subgroups based on a shared characteristic (e.g. income, gender), and then they’re randomly selected in proportion to their presence in overall population

Representational Generalizability

the extent to which the findings from a specific sample can be applied to a larger target population, reflecting the degree to which the sample accurately represents the characteristics of that population

participants

people who take part in a psych experiment

target population

a specific group of people they are interested in for their study

representative sample

obtaining a sample that reflects the diversity of a population

population validity

how well the results of your study apply to groups of people beyond the specific individuals studied

exclusion criteria

predefined characteristics or factors that disqualify individuals from participating in a research study, whether or not they meet the inclusion criteria

snowball sampling

when participants recruit other participants from among their friends and acquaintances (the sample grows like a snowball rolling downhill)

one-tailed hypothesis

predicts that the effect will go in a specific direction

two-tailed hypothesis

doesn’t specify the direction of the effect

methodological considerations

involves the design and procedure of the experiment

participant biases

ways in which participants’ behaviour may be influenced by factors unrelated to the actual variables being studied

demand characteristics

cues in a study that inadvertently communicate to participants what behaviour or responses are expected or desired by the researcher

expectancy effect

when a participant figures out the aim of a study and tries to help the researcher to support the hypothesis

screw you effect

when the participant tries to figure out the researcher’s hypothesis only to destroy the credibility of the study

reactivity

phenomenon where participants act different because they know they’re being observed

social desirability bias

when participants react a certain way because they feel that this is the socially acceptable thing to do

fatigue effect

participants may get tired or bored when asked to repeat several conditions of an experiment, e.g. losing motivation or lack of concentration

interference effect

the fact that you’ve taken part in one condition affects your ability take part in the next condition.

practice effect

when participants get better over time due to the repetition and practice of experiment

counterbalancing

varying the orders in which the conditions are tested in

placebo effect

when participants may experience changes in behaviour, symptoms, or outcomes, because they believe they’re receiving a treatment, even if it doesn’t offer any therapeutic value

nocebo effect

when a person experiences negative effects caused by the belief that something will harm them

acquiescence bias

participants might agree with or conform to what they perceive is the interviewer’s viewpoint

external validity

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized beyond the specific conditions of the experiment — to other people, settings, times, and measures: Do the findings apply to the real world or just to this specific study?

undue stress

higher level of stress that someone may face daily, stress or harm that can’t be justified as necessary for the research

consent by proxy

the process in which someone other than the individual who will be directly affected by a decision provides consent on their behalf (when factors like age, incapacity, disability affect their ability to give informed consent)

assent

age appropriate version of consent that ensures the child understands what they’re being asked to participate in and agrees to do so

anonymity

no information about participants is collected or stored in a way that links them to their data

confidentiality

the researchers collect identifying information but protect it and do not disclose to unauthorized individuals or entities.

deception by omission

the researchers don’t tell the participant the complete aim of the study or leave out information that may negatively impact the study’s outcome

deception by commission

researchers provide misinformation about the study

reductionism

the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into smaller parts

holism

an approach that emphasizes the whole rather than its constituent parts

emergence

properties of the whole can’t be explained by the properties of its part, complex behaviours arise from the interaction of multiple levels of explanation that can’t be reduced to a single lower level

behaviourism

assumes all behaviour can be reduced to simple building blocks of stimulus response and that complex behaviour is a series of rewards (reinforcements) and punsihments

environmental reductionism

our behaviour is simply the result of responding to external stimuli

positivistic approach

argues that all genuine knowledge must be built on strict adherence to empirical methods

Perspective

lens of viewpoint psychologists use to study and explain human behaviour, can be compared and contrasted with other perspectives

Cultural perspective

intentional approach that recognized the influence of culture on human behaviour, thinking, and emotion

Bias

a systematic error or distortion in thinking, perception, or interpretation, often unconscious

Cultural bias

an unconscious or unintentional preference for one culture over others, often treating one cultural viewpoint as the “norm” or “superior”

Determinism

the idea that human thoughts, feelings, and behaviour is caused by prior factors (internal or external), not free will, predictable

Biological Determinism

behaviour explained by biology (genes, hormones, brain structure)

Environmental Determinism

behaviour explained by environment + external stimuli (learning, upbringing, social context)

Self-determinism (free will)

the opposite of determinism, although behaviours may be influenced by internal or external factors, we still have personal agency and choice

downward causality

higher level systems can influence individual behaviour

theory triangulation

working together with different perspectives to come up with a conclusion

universalism

relativism

psychological principles vary across cultures (behaviour is culturally bound)

experimental data

obtained from experiments and allow us to determine causality (aka true experiment)

correlational data

quantitative but the study did not manipulate an independent variable under controlled conditions with participants randomly allocated to condition (aka quasi experiment)

cross sectional data

quantitative data

numeric, measurable data, can be statistically analyzed

nominal data

based on categories

ordinal data

ranked data

ratio data

most commonly used, has a potential score of 0 (ratios can be 0s) and can carry out basic arithmetic on the data

qualitative data

non-numeric, descriptive information

self reported data

when the participants tell the researcher their experiences, memories or feelings in an interview or survey

behavioural data

obtained when a psychologist observes behaviour

psychological/physiological data??

biological measures

archival data

pre-existing records

anecdotal data

someone’s personal experiences or informal observations

empirical data

data gathered through systematic observation or experimentation that can be independently verified and statistically analysed

primary data

collected by the researcher directly from the source for the specific purpose of your study

secondary data

collected by someone else for another purpose, which a researcher reuses

normal distribution (curve)

data is distributed in a symmetrical way that resembles a bell-shaped curve = mean and median are the same

standard deviation

the average difference of the scores from the mean (average)

Extraneous variables

Any variables outside of the IV that could influence the DV. They aren’t always a problem if controlled, but if left uncontrolled they can become confounding variables.

Sample

The group of participants chosen from the population to be studied in research.