U.S. Political Parties, Electoral Systems, and Congressional Committees

Political Party

An organized group of people who share similar political beliefs and seek to gain political power by electing members to public office.

Major Parties

The two dominant political parties in the U.S.—the Democratic Party and the Republican Party.

Democratic Party

The political party associated with the color blue.

Republican Party

The political party associated with the color red.

Grand Old Party (GOP)

A nickname for the Republican Party.

Republican Symbol

The elephant.

Democratic Symbol

The donkey.

Conservatives

Ideology associated with the Republican Party (right-leaning).

Liberals

Ideology associated with the Democratic Party (left-leaning).

Right in Politics

Conservative beliefs—favoring limited government, free markets, and traditional values.

Left in Politics

Liberal beliefs—favoring government involvement in social and economic programs and progressive reform.

Minor Parties

Smaller political parties that compete with the two major parties, often focusing on specific issues or representing alternative viewpoints.

Majority Party

The political party that holds the most seats in a legislative body.

Minority Party

The political party that holds fewer seats in a legislative body.

Interest Group

An organization that seeks to influence public policy and decision-making without running candidates for office.

Political Parties vs. Interest Groups

Political parties seek to control government by winning elections; interest groups seek to influence those in power regardless of who's in office.

Similarities between Political Parties and Interest Groups

Both organize people around shared interests, try to influence government policy, and educate the public.

Party Platform

A formal statement of a party's principles, goals, and policy positions on major issues.

Contents of a Party Platform

The party's stance on social, economic, and foreign policy issues.

Two-Party System

A political system in which two major parties dominate elections and government.

Multiparty System

A political system where multiple parties have realistic chances to win power and form coalitions.

Single-Member District/Winner-Take-All System

An electoral system where only one candidate wins per district, and the candidate with the most votes wins the seat.

Proportional Representation System

A system where parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes they receive.

U.S. Political System

The United States has a two-party system.

Winner-Take-All vs. Proportional Representation

In Winner-Take-All, only the top vote-getter wins representation; in Proportional Representation, multiple parties gain seats based on vote share.

Winner-Take-All

Only the top vote-getter wins representation.

Proportional Representation

Multiple parties gain seats based on vote share.

Duverger's Law

The theory that countries using single-member, winner-take-all elections tend to develop two-party systems.

Republican Party Formation

The party was formed in opposition to the expansion of slavery into new territories.

Dominant Parties in America

The Civil War and its aftermath solidified the Republican and Democratic parties as the dominant parties.

Party Realignment

A major shift in political loyalty and voter coalitions that leads to a new dominant party era.

Critical Election

An election that signals a significant change in political alignment and party dominance.

New Deal Realignment

The most important party realignment in recent history.

1932 Presidential Election

Franklin D. Roosevelt's victory and the New Deal coalition reshaped American politics, aligning working-class voters, minorities, and urban groups with the Democratic Party.

Democratic Party Regions

The Northeast, West Coast, and major urban areas.

Republican Party Regions

The South, Midwest, and rural areas.

Party-in-the-Electorate

The voters who identify with or support a political party.

Party Organization

The formal structure of the political party, including national, state, and local committees.

Party-in-Government

The elected officials from a particular party who hold office and influence government policy.

Affective Polarization

Growing dislike and hostility between supporters of opposing political parties.

Pernicious Polarization

Extreme polarization that threatens democratic norms and makes political compromise nearly impossible.

Bicameral Legislature

A legislature with two chambers — in the U.S., the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Advantages of Bicameral Legislatures

They provide checks and balances, allow for more careful lawmaking, and represent different interests (states vs. population).

Disadvantages of Bicameral Legislatures

They can slow down the legislative process and make it harder to pass laws.

Differences between House and Senate

Size: House has 435 members; Senate has 100. Term length: House members serve 2 years; Senators serve 6 years. Constituency: House represents districts; Senate represents entire states.

standing committee

A permanent committee that handles bills in specific policy areas.

joint committee

A committee that includes members from both the House and Senate, usually for research or oversight.

select committee

A temporary committee formed for a specific purpose, often investigations.

conference committee

A committee that resolves differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

party conferences

Meetings where each party's members in Congress choose their leaders and discuss policy goals.

core committees

Standing committees.

party balance on a committee

Based on each party's proportion of seats in the full chamber.

Speaker of the House

Presides over the House, sets the agenda, assigns bills to committees, and is the most powerful member of the chamber.

House Majority Leader

Assists the Speaker in managing legislation and guiding party strategy.

Senate president pro tempore

Presides over the Senate in the Vice President's absence (largely ceremonial, given to the senior member of the majority party).

Senate Majority Leader

The most powerful member in the Senate—sets the agenda, schedules votes, and represents the majority party's interests.

traditional/classic legislative process

The step-by-step process through which a bill becomes law, involving committee review, floor debate, and presidential approval.

six stages before a bill becomes law

Introduction, Committee review, House and Senate debate/voting, Conference committee reconciliation, Final approval by both chambers, Presidential action (sign or veto).

override a presidential veto

Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds vote in both chambers.

bills that raise revenue

Must begin in the House of Representatives.

committees with bills

They research, hold hearings, amend, and decide whether to send the bill to the floor for a vote.

balance of power shift since the 1980s

Power has shifted from committees toward party leaders, especially the Speaker and Majority Leader.

traditional filibuster

A tactic in the Senate where a member continuously speaks to delay or block a vote on a bill.

cloture vote

A Senate vote to end debate (filibuster); it requires 60 votes.

modern filibuster

Senators can simply signal intent to filibuster; no need to speak for hours. It effectively blocks action unless 60 votes end debate.

omnibus spending bill

A large bill that packages many smaller spending measures together for one overall vote.

Budget Bill

A large bill that packages many smaller spending measures together for one overall vote.

Budget Reconciliation Process

A special process allowing budget-related bills to pass the Senate with a simple majority (51 votes), avoiding filibusters.

Apportionment

The process of dividing the 435 House seats among the states based on population.

Reapportionment

The national government conducts this process after each U.S. Census.

One-Person, One-Vote Standard

The principle that each district must have roughly equal population, ensuring equal representation.

Institution Establishing One-Person, One-Vote Standard

The U.S. Supreme Court.

Redistricting

The redrawing of district boundaries by state governments following reapportionment.

Uncompetitive Congressional Elections

Races where one party is virtually guaranteed to win due to district partisanship.

The Big Sort

The tendency of Americans to move to communities with like-minded political views, increasing polarization.

Gerrymandering

Drawing district lines to benefit a political party or group.

Percentage of 2022 House District Elections Competitive Toss-Ups

About 8%.

Percentage of House Elections in 2000 Competitive Toss-Ups

About 15%.

Impact on Competitive Elections

The Big Sort — residential self-sorting plays a bigger long-term role.

Effects of Uncompetitive Elections

Lower voter turnout, decreased accountability, and increased political polarization.

Malapportionment

Unequal representation where some districts have more people per representative than others.

U.S. House and Senate Malapportionment

Among the most malapportioned—especially the Senate, where each state gets two seats regardless of population.

People Represented by Each House Member

About 760,000 people.

Concerns About House Member Representation

It reduces personal connection between representatives and constituents.

Descriptive Representation

Representation where legislators share demographic traits (like race, gender, or background) with their constituents.

Benefits of Descriptive Representation

Increases trust in government among underrepresented groups and brings diverse perspectives to policymaking.

Constituent Service

Assistance provided by members of Congress to help constituents with government-related issues.

Pork-Barrel Politics

Government spending for localized projects secured primarily to bring money to a representative's district.

Delegate Model of Representation

Representatives act according to their constituents' wishes, even if they personally disagree.

Trustee Model of Representation

Representatives use their own judgment to make decisions they believe are best for the country.

Politico Model of Representation

A hybrid approach where representatives sometimes act as delegates and sometimes as trustees, depending on the issue.

Ways Congress is Descriptively Representative

By religion and professional background (many lawyers and businesspeople).

Ways Congress is Descriptively Unrepresentative

Gender, race, and socioeconomic status—wealthy white men are overrepresented.