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Encoding

The process of forming a memory.

Storage

Retaining information in memory over time.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information when needed.

Sensory Memory

Brief memory of sensory information lasting about one second or less.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Temporary storage of limited information lasting about 20-30 seconds.

Working Memory

Active system that processes and manipulates information held in short-term storage.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Relatively permanent storage with unlimited capacity.

Consolidation

Gradual process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory.

Reconsolidation

Re-storing a retrieved memory, allowing updates or distortions.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of synaptic connections that supports memory formation.

Hippocampus

Brain structure involved in forming new explicit memories.

Amygdala

Brain structure involved in emotional memories and fear.

Prefrontal Cortex

Area responsible for working memory and attention control.

Cerebellum

Brain structure important for procedural and motor memories.

Explicit Memory

Memory for facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled.

Implicit Memory

Memory without conscious awareness, including skills and conditioning.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal events and experiences.

Semantic Memory

Memory of general facts and knowledge.

Procedural Memory

Memory of motor skills and actions.

Priming

Activation of stored information by prior exposure.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform actions in the future.

Retrospective Memory

Remembering past events or previously learned information.

Schema

Organized knowledge structure that helps interpret and remember information.

Semantic Network

System of related concepts linked together in memory.

Retrieval Cue

Stimulus that helps access stored information.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Recall is better when the retrieval context matches the encoding context.

State-Dependent Learning

Improved recall when internal states match during learning and testing.

Context-Dependent Learning

Improved recall when the physical environment matches between learning and testing.

Serial Position Effect

Better memory for first and last items in a list.

Absentmindedness

Forgetting caused by inattention or shallow encoding.

Transience

Loss of information over time.

Proactive Interference

Old information interferes with new learning.

Retroactive Interference

New information interferes with old memories.

Blocking

Temporary inability to retrieve stored information, often called tip-of-the-tongue.

Persistence

Unwanted recurrence of memories, often of traumatic events.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories for events that occurred before injury.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories after injury.

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid and seemingly detailed recollection of an emotional event.

Source Misattribution

Attributing a memory to the wrong origin.

Source Amnesia

Remembering information but forgetting where it came from.

Cryptomnesia

Thinking an idea is original when it was actually encountered earlier.

Suggestibility

Incorporating misleading information into memory due to suggestion.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to recall information that confirms existing beliefs.

Prenatal Development

Growth from conception to birth, divided into germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.

Germinal Stage

First two weeks after conception when the zygote implants in the uterus.

Embryonic Stage

Period from two to eight weeks when major organs begin forming.

Fetal Stage

Period from two months until birth involving growth and maturation.

Teratogen

Environmental agent that can harm a developing embryo or fetus.

Synaptic Pruning

Elimination of unused neural connections to increase brain efficiency.

Brain Plasticity

Capacity of the brain to change and adapt through experience.

Sensitive Period

Time during which certain skills or abilities are most easily learned.

Reflex

Automatic, innate movement pattern such as sucking or grasping.

Preferential Looking

Method for studying infant perception by comparing gaze duration.

Habituation

Decreased response to repeated stimulation indicating recognition.

Attachment

Emotional bond between infant and caregiver.

Secure Attachment

Infant explores freely and is soothed by caregiver's return.

Avoidant Attachment

Infant shows little distress or interest in caregiver.

Ambivalent Attachment

Infant is clingy and difficult to comfort.

Temperament

Innate style of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's stage where infants learn through senses and motor actions and develop object permanence.

Preoperational Stage

Stage where symbolic thought develops but thinking is egocentric and illogical.

Concrete Operational Stage

Stage where logical thought develops for concrete situations but not abstract reasoning.

Formal Operational Stage

Stage where abstract and hypothetical thinking emerges.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing mental schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to fit new information.

Theory of Mind

Understanding that others have separate thoughts and feelings.

Kohlberg's Moral Development

Model describing reasoning from self-interest to universal principles.

Preconventional Level

Morality based on rewards and punishments.

Conventional Level

Morality based on social rules and approval.

Postconventional Level

Morality based on abstract ethical principles.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

Eight stages of development defined by social and emotional crises.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Learning reliability of caregivers in infancy.

Autonomy vs. Shame

Developing independence in toddlerhood.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Learning responsibility and purpose in early childhood.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Mastering competence in school years.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Forming a stable sense of self in adolescence.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Establishing close relationships in young adulthood.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Contributing to society in middle adulthood.

Integrity vs. Despair

Reflecting on life satisfaction in old age.

Puberty

Biological process leading to sexual maturity.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Reproductive organs necessary for reproduction.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical features that differentiate the sexes but are not required for reproduction.

Myelination

Insulation of neurons that speeds up transmission.

Adolescent Egocentrism

Focus on self and belief that others are watching closely.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

Older adults focus on meaningful goals and relationships.

Emotion

Immediate, specific response involving physiological arousal and subjective feeling.

Mood

Long-lasting emotional state without a clear trigger.

Primary Emotions

Basic universal emotions such as happiness, fear, anger, sadness, surprise, and disgust.

Secondary Emotions

Blends of basic emotions such as guilt, shame, pride, and jealousy.

Circumplex Model

Two-dimensional model of emotions organized by valence and arousal.

Limbic System

Brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.

Insula

Brain area processing bodily sensations and feelings like disgust.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary physiological responses during emotion.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates arousal and prepares for action.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body and restores balance.

Display Rules

Cultural norms dictating when and how emotions are expressed.

Somatic Marker

Bodily reaction that influences decision-making.

James-Lange Theory

Emotions result from perception of bodily arousal.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Emotion and arousal occur simultaneously and independently.

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

Emotion arises from physiological arousal plus a cognitive label.