UNIT 2 COGNITION ULTIMATE STUYGUIDE! zona eigel

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make it meaningful.

Bottom-up Processing

Analysis that starts at the sensory level and works up to higher levels of processing.

Top-down Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, using experiences and expectations to construct perceptions.

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Perceptual Set

A predisposition to perceive things in a certain way.

Gestalt Psychology

An approach to psychology emphasizing that the whole is different from the sum of its parts.

Closure

The perceptual tendency to fill in gaps in order to perceive a complete image.

Proximity

Objects that are close to each other tend to be perceived as belonging together.

Similarity

Objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging together.

Figure and Ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).

Attention

Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events.

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus one's auditory attention on a specific stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Binocular Depth Cues

Depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes.

Retinal Disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas of both eyes.

Convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object.

Monocular Depth Cues

Depth cues available to either eye alone, such as interposition and linear perspective.

Relative Size

Perceiving objects of similar size; the one casting a smaller retinal image is perceived as farther away.

Texture Gradient

The tendency for textured surfaces to appear smaller and finer as distance increases.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge with distance.

Interposition

If one object partially blocks another, we perceive it as being closer.

Perceptual Constancies

Perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in illumination and retinal images.

Apparent Movement

The perception that a stationary object is moving.

Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category.

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adapting current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Algorithms

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristics

A simple thinking strategy that allows for efficient judgment and problem-solving.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things based on their representation of prototypes.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their memory availability.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past success.

Priming

The activation of certain associations, influencing perception and response.

Framing

The way an issue is posed, significantly affecting decisions and judgments.

Gambler’s Fallacy

Belief that future probabilities are influenced by past events.

Sunk-cost Fallacy

Making decisions based on past investments.

Executive Functions

Higher order thinking processes including planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent Thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking in multiple directions.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing problem solutions to determine the best one.

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions.

Testing Effect

Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by testing on the material to be remembered.

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking; processes used to plan, monitor, and assess understanding and performance.

Intelligence

Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt.

g (General Intelligence)

A factor underlying specific mental abilities, measured by intelligence tests.

Multiple Intelligences

Theory proposing eight distinct spheres of intelligence.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A score derived to measure intelligence, originally based on mental and chronological age.

Mental Age

Chronological age that corresponds to a given level of performance on an intelligence test.

Chronological Age

The age of an individual expressed as time elapsed since birth.

Standardization

Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores based on a pretested group.

Construct Validity

The extent to which a test measures a particular hypothetical construct.

Predictive Validity

The success with which a test predicts designed behavior.

Reliability

The extent to which a test yields consistent results.

Test-Retest Reliability

Reliability determined by comparing scores from the same test taken on separate occasions.

Split-Half Reliability

A measure of reliability comparing scores on two halves of a test.

Stereotype Threat

A concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

Stereotype Lift

Awareness of positive expectations improving performance.

Flynn Effect

The rise in average IQ scores over decades in many nations.

Achievement Tests

Tests designed to assess what a person has learned.

Aptitude Tests

Tests designed to predict future performance; reflects learning capacity.

Fixed Mindset

Belief that abilities are fixed and unchangeable.

Growth Mindset

Belief that abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work.

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously declare.

Episodic Memory

The ability to recall specific episodes from one's personal past.

Semantic Memory

Memory for factual information.

Implicit Memory

Retention of learned skills or conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory involving motor skills and behaviors.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform a future action at the appropriate time.

Long-term Potentiation

An increase in a cell's firing potential after rapid stimulation; believed to be foundational for learning.

Working Memory Model

An updated version of short-term memory involving active processing of incoming and retrieved information.

Central Executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and processing.

Phonological Loop

Part of working memory that processes verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Part of working memory that processes visual and spatial information.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

Model describing memory as consisting of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Iconic Memory

Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic memory lasting a few tenths of a second.

Echoic Memory

Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; sounds can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory

Activated memory holding a few items briefly before information is stored or forgotten.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Encoding

The processing of information into memory, often by extracting meaning.

Storage

Retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Levels of Processing Model

Memory retention is directly related to the depth of mental processing, with deeper processing enhancing recall.

Shallow Encoding

Processing information based on surface characteristics.

Deep Encoding

Processing information based on its meaning.

Structural Encoding

Shallow processing emphasizing the physical structure of a stimulus.

Phonemic Encoding

Encoding sounds, especially the sounds of words.

Semantic Encoding

The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids using vivid imagery and organizational techniques.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic device involving placing items to remember along a familiar route.

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar units, often occurring automatically.

Categories

Grouping items into categories that share similar characteristics.

Hierarchies

Systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes.

Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed study to yield better long-term retention.

Memory Consolidation

The neural storage process of a long-term memory.

Massed Practice

Cramming information all at once, less effective than distributed practice.

Distributed Practice

Spreading out study sessions over time, leading to better memorization.