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Perception
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make it meaningful.
Bottom-up Processing
Analysis that starts at the sensory level and works up to higher levels of processing.
Top-down Processing
Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, using experiences and expectations to construct perceptions.
Schema
A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
Perceptual Set
A predisposition to perceive things in a certain way.
Gestalt Psychology
An approach to psychology emphasizing that the whole is different from the sum of its parts.
Closure
The perceptual tendency to fill in gaps in order to perceive a complete image.
Proximity
Objects that are close to each other tend to be perceived as belonging together.
Similarity
Objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging together.
Figure and Ground
The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).
Attention
Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events.
Selective Attention
The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
Cocktail Party Effect
The ability to focus one's auditory attention on a specific stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli.
Inattentional Blindness
Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
Change Blindness
Failing to notice changes in the environment.
Binocular Depth Cues
Depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes.
Retinal Disparity
A binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas of both eyes.
Convergence
A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object.
Monocular Depth Cues
Depth cues available to either eye alone, such as interposition and linear perspective.
Relative Size
Perceiving objects of similar size; the one casting a smaller retinal image is perceived as farther away.
Texture Gradient
The tendency for textured surfaces to appear smaller and finer as distance increases.
Linear Perspective
Parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge with distance.
Interposition
If one object partially blocks another, we perceive it as being closer.
Perceptual Constancies
Perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in illumination and retinal images.
Apparent Movement
The perception that a stationary object is moving.
Prototypes
A mental image or best example of a category.
Assimilation
Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.
Accommodation
Adapting current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
Algorithms
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
Heuristics
A simple thinking strategy that allows for efficient judgment and problem-solving.
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things based on their representation of prototypes.
Availability Heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their memory availability.
Mental Set
A tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past success.
Priming
The activation of certain associations, influencing perception and response.
Framing
The way an issue is posed, significantly affecting decisions and judgments.
Gambler’s Fallacy
Belief that future probabilities are influenced by past events.
Sunk-cost Fallacy
Making decisions based on past investments.
Executive Functions
Higher order thinking processes including planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making.
Creativity
The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Divergent Thinking
Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking in multiple directions.
Convergent Thinking
Narrowing problem solutions to determine the best one.
Functional Fixedness
The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions.
Testing Effect
Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by testing on the material to be remembered.
Metacognition
Thinking about thinking; processes used to plan, monitor, and assess understanding and performance.
Intelligence
Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt.
g (General Intelligence)
A factor underlying specific mental abilities, measured by intelligence tests.
Multiple Intelligences
Theory proposing eight distinct spheres of intelligence.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
A score derived to measure intelligence, originally based on mental and chronological age.
Mental Age
Chronological age that corresponds to a given level of performance on an intelligence test.
Chronological Age
The age of an individual expressed as time elapsed since birth.
Standardization
Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores based on a pretested group.
Construct Validity
The extent to which a test measures a particular hypothetical construct.
Predictive Validity
The success with which a test predicts designed behavior.
Reliability
The extent to which a test yields consistent results.
Test-Retest Reliability
Reliability determined by comparing scores from the same test taken on separate occasions.
Split-Half Reliability
A measure of reliability comparing scores on two halves of a test.
Stereotype Threat
A concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
Stereotype Lift
Awareness of positive expectations improving performance.
Flynn Effect
The rise in average IQ scores over decades in many nations.
Achievement Tests
Tests designed to assess what a person has learned.
Aptitude Tests
Tests designed to predict future performance; reflects learning capacity.
Fixed Mindset
Belief that abilities are fixed and unchangeable.
Growth Mindset
Belief that abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work.
Explicit Memory
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously declare.
Episodic Memory
The ability to recall specific episodes from one's personal past.
Semantic Memory
Memory for factual information.
Implicit Memory
Retention of learned skills or conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection.
Procedural Memory
A type of implicit memory involving motor skills and behaviors.
Prospective Memory
Remembering to perform a future action at the appropriate time.
Long-term Potentiation
An increase in a cell's firing potential after rapid stimulation; believed to be foundational for learning.
Working Memory Model
An updated version of short-term memory involving active processing of incoming and retrieved information.
Central Executive
The part of working memory that directs attention and processing.
Phonological Loop
Part of working memory that processes verbal and auditory information.
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Part of working memory that processes visual and spatial information.
Multi-Store Model of Memory
Model describing memory as consisting of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory Memory
Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Iconic Memory
Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic memory lasting a few tenths of a second.
Echoic Memory
Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; sounds can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
Short-Term Memory
Activated memory holding a few items briefly before information is stored or forgotten.
Long-Term Memory
Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Automatic Processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency.
Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Encoding
The processing of information into memory, often by extracting meaning.
Storage
Retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval
The process of getting information out of memory storage.
Levels of Processing Model
Memory retention is directly related to the depth of mental processing, with deeper processing enhancing recall.
Shallow Encoding
Processing information based on surface characteristics.
Deep Encoding
Processing information based on its meaning.
Structural Encoding
Shallow processing emphasizing the physical structure of a stimulus.
Phonemic Encoding
Encoding sounds, especially the sounds of words.
Semantic Encoding
The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.
Mnemonic Devices
Memory aids using vivid imagery and organizational techniques.
Method of Loci
A mnemonic device involving placing items to remember along a familiar route.
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar units, often occurring automatically.
Categories
Grouping items into categories that share similar characteristics.
Hierarchies
Systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes.
Spacing Effect
The tendency for distributed study to yield better long-term retention.
Memory Consolidation
The neural storage process of a long-term memory.
Massed Practice
Cramming information all at once, less effective than distributed practice.
Distributed Practice
Spreading out study sessions over time, leading to better memorization.
