Psychology: Development

Development

The process of growth, change, and maturation that individuals undergo across their lifespan, encompassing physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes.

Developmental psychology

The study of how individuals evolve and adapt over time, exploring their abilities and behaviors.

Psychoanalytic Theories

Theories that emphasize the role of unconscious motivations and social conflicts in development, such as Freud's psychosexual stages and Erikson's psychosocial stages.

Cognitive Developmental Theories

Theories that focus on how children acquire knowledge and understanding of the world, such as Piaget's stages of cognitive development and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory.

Behavioral and Social Learning Theories

Theories that emphasize the impact of external rewards, punishments, and observational learning on development, such as Skinner's operant conditioning and Bandura's social learning theory.

Attachment Theory

A theory that explains the emotional bonds between infants and caregivers and their influence on social and emotional development, developed by Bowlby and extended by Ainsworth.

Moral Development Theories

Theories that examine how individuals' moral reasoning evolves, such as Kohlberg's stages of moral development.

Ecological Systems Theory

A theory that focuses on the impact of various environmental systems on development, such as the family, peers, and culture, developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner.

Prenatal Development

The process of growth and maturation that occurs before birth, divided into three main stages:germinal, embryonic, and fetal.

Teratogens

Substances or factors that can negatively impact the developing fetus during pregnancy, leading to physical birth defects, cognitive impairments, and emotional or behavioral issues.

Motor Development

The progression of physical skills and abilities in infancy and early childhood, including milestones such as rolling over, crawling, standing, and walking.

Cognitive Development

The process of acquiring knowledge, reasoning, and problem-solving abilities, as proposed by Piaget's stages of cognitive development.

Social and Emotional Development

The growth of social skills, emotional regulation, and the formation of attachments and relationships in infancy and early childhood.

Information Processing Model

A theoretical framework that views cognitive development as a system that processes information similarly to a computer, focusing on how individuals acquire, store, and retrieve information.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Eight distinct stages proposed by Erik Erikson, each involving a unique psychosocial crisis or challenge.

Attachment Theory

Examines the emotional bonds formed between children and their caregivers, including secure attachment, anxious-resistant attachment, avoidant attachment, and disorganized attachment.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Consists of three levels with two stages each, totaling six stages of moral reasoning that individuals progress through as they age.

Moral Development

The process of acquiring moral values and principles.

Stage 1

Punishment and Obedience Orientation:The first stage of moral development where individuals follow rules to avoid punishment.

Stage 2

Individualism and Exchange:The second stage of moral development where individuals consider their own needs and wants in moral decision-making.

Stage 3

Interpersonal Relationships:The third stage of moral development where individuals seek approval and maintain good relationships.

Stage 4

Maintaining Social Order:The fourth stage of moral development where individuals value societal order and follow rules to maintain social harmony.

Stage 5

Social Contract and Individual Rights:The fifth stage of moral development where individuals recognize that moral rules are social agreements that can be modified for the greater good.

Stage 6

Universal Principles:The final stage of moral development where individuals develop their own moral principles based on universal ethics and values.

Cultural Bias

The criticism that Kohlberg's theory is biased towards Western, industrialized societies and may not apply to non-Western cultures.

Gender Bias

The criticism that Kohlberg's research initially suggested lower moral reasoning in women, without considering different moral perspectives and reasoning styles.

Limited Emphasis on Emotions

The criticism that Kohlberg's theory focuses primarily on cognitive aspects and neglects the role of emotions in moral decision-making.

Incomplete Model

The criticism that Kohlberg's model oversimplifies moral development by not considering emotions, situational factors, and the dynamic nature of the process.

Cultural Relativism

The recognition that different cultures have diverse moral standards and principles.

Collectivism vs

The distinction between cultures that prioritize group harmony and interdependence (collectivist) and those that emphasize personal autonomy and rights (individualist).

Role of Religion

The influence of religious beliefs on moral values and development.

Moral Dilemmas

The variation in moral dilemmas across cultures, focusing on interpersonal relationships, community well-being, or individual rights and societal justice.

Self-Concept

An individual's perception of themselves, including their physical, social, and psychological characteristics.

Identity Development

The process of understanding one's self in relation to others and the world.

Emotional Development

The growth and maturation of emotional abilities and regulation over the lifespan.

Nature vs

The debate regarding the influence of biology (nature) and environment (nurture) on gender development.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura's theory that individuals acquire gender-related behaviors and identities through observation, imitation, and reinforcement.

Cognitive Development Theory

Lawrence Kohlberg's theory that suggests children develop gender identity and understanding in stages.

Gender Schema Theory

Sandra Bem's theory that individuals actively organize and process gender-related information through mental frameworks called schemas.

Gender Identity

An individual's deeply held sense of their own gender.

Gender Roles

Societal and cultural expectations, norms, and behaviors associated with being male or female.

Gender Role Socialization

The process through which individuals learn and internalize behaviors, attitudes, and expectations associated with their gender identity.

Gender Dysphoria

Psychological distress caused by a mismatch between an individual's gender identity and their assigned sex at birth.

Physical Changes in Aging

The natural decline and changes in muscle and bone health, cardiovascular system, sensory abilities, metabolism, cognition, immune system, and hormones.

Cognitive Changes in Aging

The changes in memory, processing speed, working memory, wisdom, and neuroplasticity that occur with age.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to adapt and rewire, supporting learning and memory even in later life.

Social Networks

Changes in social networks, such as the loss of friends and family members, experienced by older adults.

Emotional Regulation

The improvement of emotional regulation with age, leading to greater emotional stability in older adults.

Life Satisfaction

The stability or increase in life satisfaction and happiness levels in older age, depending on factors such as health, financial security, and social relationships.

Resilience

The ability of many older adults to cope effectively with life's challenges and adapt to change.

Genetic Theories of Aging

The theories suggesting that aging is influenced by genetic factors, including programmed cell death (apoptosis) and the role of telomeres in cellular aging.

Cellular Theories of Aging

The theories focusing on cellular damage and repair mechanisms, such as the free radical theory and the mitochondrial theory.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

The theory suggesting that as individuals age, they become more selective in their social relationships, focusing on emotionally meaningful ones.

Activity Theory

The theory positing that successful aging is associated with maintaining a high level of social, physical, and cognitive activity.

Successful Aging

The concept of maintaining physical health, cognitive function, social engagement, and a sense of purpose and life satisfaction in older age.

Longitudinal Studies

Research studies that follow the same group of individuals over an extended period, providing insight into individual developmental trajectories and changes over time.

Cross-Sectional Studies

Research studies that collect data from participants of different ages at a single point in time, allowing for comparisons between age groups.

Informed Consent

The requirement for researchers to obtain consent from participants or their legal guardians, ensuring they understand the research purpose and potential risks and benefits.

Protection of Vulnerable Populations

Special attention given to research involving children, the elderly, or individuals with cognitive impairments, prioritizing their welfare and obtaining informed consent when necessary.

Privacy and Confidentiality

The obligation of researchers to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants, ensuring their data is anonymized and secure.

Minimization of Harm

The responsibility of researchers to avoid causing physical and psychological harm to participants, justifying any potential harm by the study's scientific and societal value.

Deception

The need to minimize deception in research and inform participants about the purpose of any deception used after the study.

Beneficence

The obligation of researchers to maximize benefits and minimize risks for participants.

Scientific Integrity

The requirement for researchers to conduct studies with scientific rigor and honesty, avoiding fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism.

Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiments

Harry Harlow's experiments demonstrating the importance of social and emotional development in primates, showing that infant monkeys preferred comfort and attachment over nourishment.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's four stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational) describing how children develop their understanding of the world.

The Still Face Experiment

Edward Tronick's study demonstrating the impact of maternal responsiveness on infants, highlighting the importance of caregiver responsiveness for infant emotional development.

The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study

The study examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and adult health outcomes, revealing a strong connection between childhood adversity and later health problems.

Understanding Child Development

The insights provided by developmental psychology into the typical stages and milestones of child development, helping parents set realistic expectations and respond effectively to their child's changing needs and behaviors.

Parenting Styles

The various parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved) identified by developmental psychology and their effects on children's development.

Effective Discipline and Communication

Guidance from developmental psychology on effective discipline strategies and communication techniques that promote positive parent-child relationships and help children learn responsibility and self-control.

Attachment and Bonding

The understanding of attachment theory and its impact on a child's emotional and social development, assisting parents in building secure and nurturing attachments with their children.

Coping with Developmental Transitions

Advice from developmental psychologists on how parents can help their children cope with major life transitions, such as starting school, puberty, and the challenges of adolescence.

Curriculum Development

The use of developmental psychology to inform curriculum design, creating age-appropriate learning materials and activities aligned with students' cognitive and social development.

Teaching Strategies

The application of developmental psychology to tailor instructional methods to students' cognitive abilities and learning styles, adjusting the pace of instruction and providing appropriate scaffolding and technology.

Special Education

The utilization of developmental psychology research to provide tailored support and accommodations for students with developmental disorders and disabilities in inclusive and special education programs.

Early Childhood Education

The reliance on developmental psychology to design programs that foster children's cognitive, social, and emotional development in preschool and early childhood education.

Assessment and Evaluation

The development of age-appropriate assessment tools and the interpretation of test results influenced by developmental psychology, ensuring accurate evaluation of students' abilities.

Identification and Diagnosis

The crucial role of developmental psychologists in identifying and diagnosing developmental disorders, working with clinicians to assess a child's development and provide insights for early intervention.

Intervention and Treatment

The collaboration between developmental psychologists and therapists to design and implement effective intervention and treatment plans for developmental disorders.

Counseling and Support

The provision of guidance and support by developmental psychologists in counseling and therapeutic settings to individuals and families facing developmental challenges, helping with coping strategies, stress management, and resilience.

Research on Atypical Development

The study of atypical development by developmental psychologists to improve understanding of developmental disorders and inform evidence-based interventions and treatments.

Parental Guidance

The advice and support offered by developmental psychologists to parents of children with developmental disorders, helping them better understand their child's needs and provide appropriate care and encouragement.