Theme 2- CH 1 The Story of the First Cities: Harappan Archaeology

Flashcards covering key concepts from the lecture notes on Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and Bernier.

Why was Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind structured geometrically in each chapter?

Due to his mathematical orientation; each chapter had a question, Sanskrit description, and comparison.

How did Al-Biruni's linguistic skills enhance his understanding of Indian society?

Knew Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Syriac, and Sanskrit—enabling translations and comparative analysis.

Which intellectual barriers did Al-Biruni identify in understanding India?

Language, religious beliefs, and the insularity of Indian society.

Why did Al-Biruni consider caste-based pollution unnatural?

Contradicted nature’s self-cleansing mechanisms like sunlight and salt.

How did Al-Biruni use Persian social categories to explain Indian varnas?

Drew analogies with Persian classes like priests, warriors, and peasants.

Why does Al-Biruni’s account have limited representation of non-Brahmanical views?

Depended primarily on Brahmanical Sanskrit texts.

What was the intended audience of Kitab-ul-Hind according to Al-Biruni?

Those wishing to understand and interact with Hindus on religious and social matters.

What made Ibn Battuta’s observations more detailed than Al-Biruni’s?

He traveled extensively and directly interacted with people from all classes.

Why did Ibn Battuta highlight curiosities like coconut and paan?

To intrigue and engage his distant readers with cultural novelties.

What shows the administrative interest of Ibn Battuta in Indian postal systems?

Detailed accounts of horse-post and foot-post efficiency across regions.

How did Ibn Battuta assess the economic prosperity of Indian cities?

Through markets, double cropping, surplus from villages, and global textile demand.

How did Ibn Battuta perceive the social role of bazaars?

Hubs of economic, cultural, and religious life, including mosques, temples, and performances.

How did Bernier link crown landownership to peasant oppression?

Saw it as cause of excessive taxation, slavery, and agrarian decline.

What does the presence of female performers in Daulatabad signify about gender roles?

Female singers had public roles in cultural marketplaces.

Why did Ibn Battuta emphasize slave prices and availability?

Showed the scale of domestic labor dependence and commodification.

How did Ibn Battuta view the role of slave women in political surveillance?

Used by the Sultan as spies within noble households.

What makes Ibn Battuta’s account crucial for understanding mobility in medieval India?

Described land, sea, diplomatic, and commercial travel extensively.

How did Ibn Battuta describe the city of Delhi's fortifications?

Strong walls, internal storage, towers, and a complex system of gates.

What explains the diversity in Ibn Battuta’s social interactions?

His roles as qazi, envoy, and traveler across class, region, and religion.

Why is Ibn Battuta's homesickness an important historical lens?

Reflects emotional toll of long-distance travel and cultural alienation.

What shows the cosmopolitan nature of urban India in Battuta’s account?

Multi-lingual, multi-religious urban centers and exposure to global goods and ideas.

What was Bernier’s central concern in describing Mughal India?

Contrast India with Europe to emphasize the superiority of European political economy.

What economic feature did Bernier find most problematic in Mughal India?

Lack of private property in land, which hindered agricultural investment.

How does Bernier describe the absence of a middle class in India?

Society divided between impoverished masses and wealthy aristocrats.

Why did Bernier refer to Mughal towns as 'camp towns'?

Claimed their viability depended on the movement of the imperial court.

How does Bernier's description of karkhanas reflect Mughal industrial organisation?

Specialised artisans worked under supervision in state workshops.

What paradox did Bernier observe in Indian artisan productivity?

Despite economic oppression, artisans produced globally demanded goods.

How did Bernier influence Western notions of despotism?

His views shaped Montesquieu’s theory of oriental despotism and Marx's Asiatic mode.

Why did Bernier believe Indian towns lacked permanence?

Considered them dependent on imperial presence, not stable economic structures.

What was Bernier’s view on Indian manufacturers despite pessimism?

Admired Indian textiles, arms, and goldwork for their finesse.

Why did Bernier’s views gain popularity in Europe quickly?

Reinforced colonial ideas of India as backward and inferior.

How do Abu’l Fazl’s revenue concepts counter Bernier’s land claims?

Revenue seen as sovereignty's remuneration, not rent from royal ownership.

Why is the term 'oriental despotism' problematic in Bernier’s context?

Oversimplified complex social structures into rigid binaries.

How did Bernier contradict himself regarding Mughal urban life?

Criticized urban decay but noted artisan activity and trade prosperity.

What does Bernier’s lament about Indian artisans suggest about European assumptions?

Misread non-competitive tradition as lack of innovation.

How did European travel writing shape India’s global image?

Printed accounts circulated widely, reinforcing colonial stereotypes.

What kind of hierarchy did Bernier impose in his comparisons?

Binary oppositions—Europe as rational and dynamic vs. India as stagnant.

How did Bernier use sati to construct moral difference?

Presented it as barbaric, often ignoring social context.

How does Bernier’s account of the child widow reflect emotional manipulation?

Focused on helplessness and coercion to evoke pity and justify superiority.

Why is Bernier’s work an early example of colonial ethnography?

Observed and classified Indian society to build a framework for control.

How did slave women feature uniquely in Ibn Battuta’s account?

Used for espionage, cultural performance, and domestic roles.

What do differing travel styles of Al-Biruni and Ibn Battuta signify?

Al-Biruni was a scholarly observer; Battuta was a social participant.

What method did Bernier use to influence European policymaking?

Constructed India as a warning against absolutism.

Why are Persian-language travelogues of 15th–18th century significant?

Offered internal perspectives on India, unlike European orientalist views.

What does the scale of postal efficiency tell us about governance under Delhi Sultanate?

Rapid communication despite vast distances indicates centralised control.

Why are artisans described as 'naturally indolent' problematic in Bernier’s writing?

Reflects European bias rather than actual productivity levels.

What idea did Karl Marx draw from Bernier’s observations?

Asiatic mode of production—state appropriation and stagnant villages.

How did Ibn Battuta use metaphors to explain unfamiliar Indian items?

Compared coconut to human head; betel to grapevines.

Why do Bernier’s accounts contradict official Mughal records?

Based on external assumptions, not internal administrative rationale.

What does the traveller timeline from the chapter reflect about the period?

Continuity of India’s global connections from 10th to 18th century.