All Psych Terminology (Bio HL, Cog, Socio, Abnormal, Human Rel)

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175 Terms

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Localisation of Function (LoF)

The theory that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours/mental processes

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Hemispheres

• LoF splits the forebrain (cerebral cortex) into 2 hemispheres
• Left: verbal processes
• Right: non-verbal processes

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Lobes

• Each has 4 lobes with specific functions:
• Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

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Frontal Lobe

Executive functioning and motor control

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Parietal Lobe

Integrating sensory information

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Occipital Lobe

Visual processing

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Temporal Lobe

Memory and auditory processing

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Hippocampus

• Eg; hippocampus within spatial memory
• 'Seahorse shaped' structure that forms part of the limbic system and is situated in the medial temporal lobes
• Becomes active during tasks involving spatial navigation

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fMRI

Functional magnetic resonance imaging

• Shows function as opposed to just structure

• When a brain region is active during the performance of a task, the organism supplies it with oxygenated blood

• Oxygenated blood emits pulses of energy when placed in an external magnetic field - response dedpends on flow and level of oxygen

• fMRI places the brain in an external magnetic field and detects the energy pulses emitted by the blood - allows us to see which brain areas are most active during the performance of a task

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BOLD signal

Signal that is analysed by the fMRI scanner to reconstruct brain activity = BOLD (blood-oxygen-level-dependent) signal

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Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

is diagnosed when an individual experiences 2 weeks of depressed mood or a lost of interest and pleasure

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MDD symptoms

• At least 4 symptoms must be present across a range of categories:

• Affective (guilt)

• Behavioral (passivity)

• Cognitive (suicidal thoughts)

• Somatic (loss of energy)

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Gene

• Considered the basic unit of inheritance

• Contain the information needed to specify physical and biological traits

• Humans have 2 copies (alleles) of each gene, one inherited from each biological parent

• 2 copies can be the same (homozygous) or different (heterozygous)

• Sometimes a gene's DNA sequence changes (mutates)

• Allele combinations determine our genotype and our resulting traits are our phenotype

• Psychologists argue that some genes can give rise to physiology that gives rise to specific behaviours

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5-HTT gene

• Eg; inheriting mutations of the 5-HTT (serotonin transporter) gene increases vulnerability to MDD

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Serotonin

Neurotransmitter involved in controlling mood

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Serotonin Hypothesis

Dysfunctional serotonergic neurons can affect sensitivity to stress and difficulties with emotional regulation

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Diathesis Stress Model

Proposes that genetic vulnerability combined with environmental stressors can cause MDD

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Genetic similarity

Biological psychologists propose that a trait has an underlying genetic component (is heritable) when the probability of 2 people sharing that trait increases with their proportion of shared genes

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Twins

• Provide a unique way to investigate this as there are 2 types of twins with different levels of genetic similarity:

• Monozygotic (MZ) twins share ~100% of DNA

• Dizygotic (DZ) twins share ~50% of DNA

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Concordance rates

• Twins studies measure the concordance rates of a particular trait across the 2 different types of twins

• Concordance rate: refers to the chance that one twin will have a particular trait, given that the other twin has it

• If MZ twins raised tgt have a significantly higher concordance rate for MDD than DZ twins raised together, it is assumed that the development is partly due to genetics/'nature'

• Higher concordance rates of 100 are rare for any trait, suggesting that the development of most traits is also partly due to the environment/'nurture'

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Diffusion of Responsibility

• When there are other people present, we assume that someone else will help
• More people present = less likely one is to help

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Informational Social Influence

• A form of conformity in which we figure out how to behave by watching the behaviour of others
• If others don't help, we won't either

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Evaluation Apprehension

The fear of social criticism for helping in a situation where helping was unnecessary

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Priming

It is suggested that if one is aware of these factors, they are able to be primed into showing more prosocial behaviors

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Social Norms

• If social norms - actions considered typical within a group - determine helping behvaiour, it can be argued that changing norms may decrease bystanderism and increase prosocial behaviour
• Priming can be done through media such as video games promoting prosocial behaviour

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Vulnerability Models

explain that MDD develops as a result of the interaction between...

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Protective Factors

Factors which protect against the development of MDD in spite of vulnerability factors

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Vulnerability Factors

Factors which, on their own, don't cause MDD, but increase the risk of developing MDD

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Provoking Agents

• Factors which contribute to acute and ongoing stress
• Whether these trigger the onsent of MDD depends on the number of protective and vulnerability factors

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Distributive Processing

Although some brain structures play very specialised roles, it is generally accepted that many cognitive functions involve multiple brain structures

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Amygdala

• Eg; amygdala in the medial temporal lobe plays a role in regulating emotions
• Suggested that psychopaths - those who show less altruistic behaviours - have reduced amygdala responsiveness to fearful expressions and reduced amygdala volume

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Twins

• Provide a unique way to investigate this as there are 2 types of twins with different levels of genetic similarity:
• Monozygotic (MZ) twins share ~100% of DNA
• Dizygotic (DZ) twins share ~50% of DNA

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Concordance Rates

• Twins studies measure the concordance rates of a particular trait across the 2 different types of twins
• Concordance rate: refers to the chance that one twin will have a particular trait, given that the other twin has it

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Nature vs Nurture

• If MZ twins raised tgt have a significantly higher concordance rate for MDD than DZ twins raised together, it is assumed that the development is partly due to genetics/'nature'
• Higher concordance rates of 100 are rare for any trait, suggesting that the development of most traits is also partly due to the environment/'nurture'

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Cognitive Vulnerability Model for Depression

• Proposes that people who have certain cognitive characteristics are more likely to become depressed
• Makes an individual more vulnerable

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Beck's Cognitive Theory

Composed of 3 components: Negative cognitive biases, Negative self-schemas, Negative triad

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Negative Cognitive Biases

They are more likely to focus on negative aspects of a situation, being prone to illogical thinking patterns by distorting and misinterpreting information

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Negative Self-Schemas

Interpreting information about themselves in a negative way which could lead to cognitive biases

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Negative Triad

A negative and irrational view of ourselves, our future, and the world around us

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6 Types of Faulty Thinking

• Arbitrary Inference: drawing conclusions based on little/no evidence
• Dichotomus Thinking: an all-or-nothing approach to viewing the world
• Magnification: overestimating the significance of negative events
• Overgeneralisation: applying the outcome of a single incident to all similar incidents
• Personalisation: sssuming that others' behaviour is done to hurt ot humiliate you
• Selective Abstraction: drawing conclusions by focusing on a single part of a whole

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Negative Response Styles Theory (rumination)

Focused attention on the symptoms of distress and worrying about the meaning of it

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Negative Responses

• Low confidence in decision-making
• Over-analysis and over-interpretation of events
• Vacillation between uncertainty and hopelessness
• Thoughts aligned with Beck's negative cognitive triad and negative self-schemas

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Prevalence Rates

Are a statistical concept referring to the percentage of individuals within a population who are affected by a specific disorder at a given time

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Period Prevalence

Proportion of people in a given population who have the disorder within a given time interval (Eg; 12 month prevalence/lifetime prevalence)

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Point Prevalence

Where the proportion of people in a given population are currently diagnosed with the disorder

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Problematic prevalence rates

• Prevalence rates can be problematic because a diagnosis is not always reliable across cultures
• Symptoms may be different for the same disorder in different cultures

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Reasons prevalence rates differ

• There may be real differences in rate of depression - in some countries and demographics people are truly more likely to get depressed
• Eg; theory of vulnerability models suggests prevalence differs between genders due to different risk and protective factors for different groups

• There may be differences in how often depression is reported
• Eg; theory of explanatory models suggests prevalence differs between cultures due to differences in manifestations of symptoms between cultures/cultural attitudes towards depression

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Informational Social Influence

• A form of conformity in which we figure out how to behave by watching the behaviour of others
• If others don't help, we won't either

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Evaluation Apprehension

The fear of social criticism for helping in a situation where helping was unnecessary

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Arousal Cost Reward Model

• We are motivated to help people not because of empathy, but as a way of reducing negative feelings
• "Arousal" = negative emotional state such as fear or sympathy

• When recognising this negative state, we then weigh the costs of helping vs not helping
• If the costs are higher than the rewards for helping, then we are unlikely to help someone in need of help

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Thinking

The process of using knowledge and information to make plans, interpret the world, and make predictions about the world in general

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Decision-making

The process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker

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Anchoring Bias

• When we base our decisions too heavily on an initial piece of information where the following judgements are based around that intial anchor
• Eg; if you first see a T-shirt that costs $1000, then see a second one that costs $100, you're prone to see the second shirt as cheap

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Dual Process Model (DPM)

• Occurs due to heuristics within the DPM
• System 1: Quick and intuitive way of thinking therefore uses...
• Heuristics: mental shortcuts that are used to make quick decisions by focusing on specific aspects of information and disregarding others

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Cognition

Mental process of acquiring and interpreting knowledge

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Emotion

The mental state/feelings of humans

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Emotion and Cognition

• Emotion and cognition are intertwined
• Emotions are believed to shape the experiences of events in regards to personal relevance - guiding individuals on how to react to certain situations

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Flashbulb Memory (FBM)

• Highly detailed, vivid "snapshots" of a moment where extreme emotions were present
• Includes details such as time, place, who a person was with , what they were doing, how they felt, how others felt, and the consequences of the event
• Eg; graduating college may be a vivid, but detailed memory despite it not being purposefully rehearsed

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Special Mechanism Hypothesis

There is a biological memory mechanism that creates a permanent record of an experience that exceeded critical levels of surprise

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Importance Driven Model

Personal consequences determine intensity of emotional reactions

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Reconstructive Memory

When memories are formed but not all of the details are remembered

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Schemas

Mental representations that helps us process and interpret information from the world

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Schema Processing

When a memory is reconstructed based on the individual's prior knowledge in what aligns with their schemas

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Leading Questions

Questions that are suggestive in some way

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Post-event Information

Any information that you are exposed to after you have witnessed something

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Misinformation Effect

Post-event information facilitate schema processing - influences the accuracy of recall

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Endocrine System

Consists of glands that produce and secrete hormones

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Hormones

Class of chemicals that affect behaviour

• Are secreted into the bloodstream by glands that make up the endocrine system
• Can only produce reactions in certain cells known as target cells, that have an appropriate receptor site for the hormone

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Stress

When the perceived demand of a situation is greater than the individual's perceived ability to cope

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Stressor

• Any event that leads to the experience of being stressed
• Includes acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) stress

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Fight or Flight Response

• Endocrine and nervous system produced fight or flight response
• When you experience a stressor, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic branch in the nervous system

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Adrenaline

Is released from the adrenal medulla into the bloodstream and triggers a sympathetic state

• Binds to receptor sites on target cells in the amygdala, increasing its activity
• Causes arousal and fight or flight response
• Plays a role in cognition - enhancing consolidation of declarative memories associated with fear, particularly episodic memories

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Beta-Blockers

Chemical substance that is capable of binding to adrenaline receptor sites thus preventing it from activating the amygdala

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System 1

Intuitive thinking, fast and effortless in processing

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System 2

Rational thinking, slow and effortful in processing

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Heuristics

• Mental shortcuts that are used to make quick decisions by focusing on specific aspects of information and disregarding others (employed in system 1 thinking)
• Leads to the formation of biases

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Anchoring bias

When we base our decisions too heavily on an initial piece of information, linking to system 1 thinking, where the following judgements are based around that initial anchor

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Memory

The process where information is encoded, stored, and retrieved

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Multi-Store Model (MSM)

Proposed by Atkinson and Shriffin - proposes that memory is made from 3 stores: sensory memory, short term memory (STM), and long term memory (LTM)

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Capacity

How many pieces of information a store can hold

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Duration

How long a piece of information can be stored for

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Sensory memory

Capacity: unlimited
Duration: 0.3-4 seconds
Uses echoic (sound) and iconic (visual) encoding

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STM

Capacity: 7+/-2 items
Duration: 15-30 seconds

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LTM

Capacity: unlimited
Duration: lifetime
Uses semantic (meanings) encoding

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Process

• Stimuli from environment goes through sensory memory
• If attention is paid, goes to STM
• Rehearsal keeps stimuli in STM - otherwise decay/displacement occurs and it is forgotten
• Elaborate rehearsal transfers stimuli to LTM
• Stimuli from LTM can be retrieved from LTM to STM - otherwise forgotten through interference or retrieval failure

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Maintenance rehearsal

Used to memorise information through repetition (improves STM)

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Chunking

Technique where information is divided into smaller chunks/sections and then are rehearsed so they can be maintained

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Serial position effect

Describes how the position of an item on a list affects memory recall

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Primacy effect

Items at the start of a list are recalled greater than in the middle

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Recency effect

Items at the end of a list are recalled greater than in the middle

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Working Memory Model (WMM)

Proposed by Baddley and Hitch - specific to structure of STM

• Central executive
• Phonological loop
• Visuospatial sketchpad
• Episodic buffer

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Central Executive

• Controls all other systems and directs attention to particular tasks
• This information comes from the LTM or sensory store but has limited capacity

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Phonological Loop

• Holds auditory information and has limited capacity
• Can be further divded into 2 parts:
• Phonological store: acts as 'inner ear' - holds sound
• Articulatory control system: acts as 'inner voice' - allows maintenance rehearsal

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Visuospatial Sketchpad

• Acts as 'inner eye' - holds visual and spatial information and has limited capacity
• Can be further divided into 2 parts
• Visual cache: stores visual information about form and colour
• Inner scribe: deals with spatial relationships

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Episodic Buffer

• Extra storage system that has limited capacity
• Explains how we can integrate and make use of information from different memory stores

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Schemas

Mental representations that helps us process and interpret information from the world

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Schema Theory

Certain ideas (schemas) are used to relate different pieces of information together to help us better understand things

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Top-down processing

When pre-exisiting information is used to organise individual features into a unified whole

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Bottom-up processing

Analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception

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Accommodation

New information can change an exisiting schema