Cognition + Biological Bases of Behavior

11/17/25

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give meaning to our environment.

Bottom-up processing

An approach where perception starts with sensory input and works up to the brain's integration of this information.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, drawing on experience and expectations to construct perceptions.

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Gestalt psychology

Emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts.

Closure

The perceptual tendency to mentally fill in gaps in a visual image to perceive objects as wholes.

Figure and ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).

Proximity

The perceptual tendency to group together visual and auditory events that are near each other.

Similarity

The perceptual tendency to group together elements that seem alike.

Attention

The focusing of mental resources on select information.

Selective attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out other stimuli.

Inattentional blindness

Failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Binocular depth cues

Depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes.

Convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object.

Monocular depth cues

Depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

Relative clarity

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are seen as farther away than sharp, clear objects.

Relative size

A cue that allows determining the closeness of objects to an object of known size.

Texture gradient

A gradual change from coarse to fine texture signaling increasing distance.

Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge with distance.

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

Transduction

The conversion of sensory stimuli into neural impulses that can be understood by the brain

Absolute Threshold

The minimum amount of stimulation required for a stimulus to be detected by a sensory system. It represents the point at which a stimulus becomes noticeable to an individual at least 50% of the time.

Just-Noticeable Difference (JND)

The smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected by an individual. It's the minimal difference needed for a person to perceive that a change has occurred.

Weber’s Law

The perceived difference in a stimulus must be proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus

Absolute Threshold

Minimum level of stimulus needed for detection.

Absolute Threshold

Determines if a stimulus can be noticed at all.

Sensory Adaptation

The process by which sensory receptors become less responsive to constant stimuli over time

Synesthesia

A condition in which stimulation of one sensory pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in another sensory pathway

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing photoreceptor cells that convert light into neural signals.

Rods

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for vision in low light conditions and detecting motion. They provide black-and-white vision and are highly sensitive to light, allowing us to see in dim environments

Cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision and detail in bright light. They enable us to perceive colors and fine visual details, such as reading text or distinguishing between different hues

Fovea

Central area of the retina responsible for sharp central vision. It contains a high concentration of cone cells (no rods), enabling detailed and color vision

Blind Spot

Area on the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye, lacking photoreceptor cells. It's a spot where vision is absent, as there are no light-sensitive cells to detect visual stimuli

Ganglion Cells

Neurons in the retina that receive visual information from bipolar cells and transmit it to the brain via the optic nerve. They play a crucial role in processing visual signals and relaying them to the brain for further interpretation.

Lens

Transparent structure in the eye that focuses light onto the retina. It adjusts its shape to help the eye properly refract light, enabling clear vision at different distances

Accommodation

The process by which the lens of the eye changes its shape to focus on objects at different distances. It allows for clear vision of both nearby and distant objects by adjusting the curvature of the lens

Nearsightedness

close objects appear clear, but distant objects appear blurry. occurs when the eyeball is too long or the cornea is too curved, causing light to focus in front of the retina instead of on it

Farsightedness

distant objects are seen more clearly than close ones. happens when the eyeball is too short or the cornea is too flat, causing light to focus behind the retina rather than directly on it.

Trichromatic Theory

A theory proposing that color vision is based on three types of cone receptors, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light (red, green, and blue). The brain combines signals from these cones to create the perception of a wide range of colors.

Opponent-Process Theory

A theory proposing that color vision is based on pairs of opposing color processes (red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white).

Dichromatism

A type of color vision deficiency where an individual has only two types of functioning cone cells instead of the normal three. This condition typically results in difficulty distinguishing between certain colors, especially reds and greens

Monochromatism

A rare form of color blindness where an individual has only one type of functioning cone cell, or none at all. This results in the inability to perceive colors, seeing the world in shades of gray

Blindsight

A phenomenon where individuals with damage to their visual cortex can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them. It suggests that some visual processing can occur unconsciously, bypassing traditional pathways in the brain.

Prosopagnosia

A neurological condition characterized by the inability to recognize familiar faces, including one's own face, despite intact vision and intellect. It's often referred to as face blindness.

Wavelength

The distance between sound wave peaks. Shorter wavelengths mean higher-pitched sounds, while longer wavelengths mean lower-pitched sounds.

Amplitude

The measure of the intensity or loudness of a sound wave, represented by the height of its peaks. Greater amplitude corresponds to louder sounds, while lower amplitude indicates softer sounds

Pitch Perception

The brain's interpretation of the frequency of sound waves, determining whether a sound is high or low in tone. Higher frequencies are perceived as higher pitches, while lower frequencies are perceived as lower pitches

Place Theory

Idea that different parts of the inner ear detect different sound frequencies. High pitches are sensed near the entrance, low pitches near the end

Frequency Theory

A theory of pitch perception proposing that the frequency of a sound wave directly corresponds to the rate at which auditory nerve fibers fire. Higher frequency sounds lead to faster firing rates, resulting in higher perceived pitches

Volley Theory

A theory of pitch perception proposing that groups of auditory neurons fire in rapid succession, or "volleys", to encode the frequency of sounds above 1000 Hz. This allows the brain to perceive pitches that exceed the firing rate of individual neurons

Sound Localization

The brain's ability to determine the location of a sound source in space. It relies on cues such as differences in arrival time and intensity between the ears, as well as spectral cues, to accurately locate sounds

Conduction Deafness

Hearing impairment caused by problems with the outer or middle ear, such as damage to the ear canal, eardrum, or middle ear bones. It typically results in difficulty hearing soft sounds and can often be treated medically or surgically (temporary).

Sensorineural Deafness

Hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve. It results in difficulty hearing soft sounds and understanding speech, and is often permanent. Common causes include aging, exposure to loud noise, and certain medical conditions.

Sensory Interaction

The principle that one sense can influence another, such as when smell affects taste. It demonstrates how our senses work together to create our overall perception of the world

Olfactory Systems

Responsible for smell. Special receptors in the nose detect smells and send signals to the brain via the olfactory nerve. The thalamus helps process this information, allowing us to identify different odors

Pheromones

Chemical substances released by animals, including humans, that trigger social or behavioral responses in others of the same species. They play a role in communication, mating, and territorial marking

Gustation

The sense of taste, involving receptors on the tongue that detect different flavors.

Warm/Cold Receptors

Specialized sensory neurons in the skin that detect changes in temperature. Warm receptors respond to increases in temperature, while cold receptors respond to decreases. They help us perceive and regulate our body's temperature

Pain

It is in fact not a sensation but an emotional response to stimuli

Gate Control Theory

A theory proposing that the experience of pain is modulated by a neural "gate" in the spinal cord. This gate can open to allow pain signals to be transmitted to the brain or close to block them.

Phantom Limb

Sensation of pain or other feelings in a missing limb. It occurs due to the brain's continued perception of the limb, even though it's no longer there. Phantom limb sensations can range from tingling to intense pain and are thought to result from the process of plasticity in the somatosensory cortex following amputation.

Vestibular Sense

The sense of body orientation and movement, including balance and spatial awareness. It relies on receptors in the inner ear that detect changes in head position and movement, helping to maintain stability and coordinate bodily movements

Semicircular Canals

Fluid-filled structures in the inner ear that detect rotational movements of the head. They play a crucial role in the vestibular sense, helping to maintain balance and coordination by sending signals to the brain about changes in head position and movement

Kinesthesis

The sense of body movement and position, including the awareness of muscle and joint sensations. It allows us to perceive and control our body's movements, providing feedback to the brain about the position and orientation of body parts

Interposition

Occurs when one object overlaps another, leading us to perceive the overlapping object as closer

Apparent Movement

The perception of motion when there isn't any actual movement.