Psychology - language, thought and communication

a) Briefly describe Piaget’s theory of language and thought. [3]

b) According to Piaget, what is the purpose of human communication?

a) Piaget thought that development takes place in stages and that language development is the result of cognitive (or thought) development [1]. According to Piaget, a child must first be able to use ideas and concepts before being able to use language [1]. However, a child might use and repeat words before understanding the concepts behind these words. Piaget called this egocentric speech [1].

b) To convey ideas and information.

Describe the weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

The weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that language influences thought.

Outline one difference in animal and human communication. Use an example to explain your answer.

Animals only communicate to pass messages about survival, reproduction, territory and obtaining food. Humans communicate information about many aspects of their lives, such as how happy their feelings by smiling or frowning when they are uncertain.

Give one example of food-related animals non-verbal communication.

The waggle dance of the honeybee.

Describe 2 forms of non-verbal communication in animals, related to territory.

Any two from:

Song in birds

Leaving marking on tree by wild boar

Scenting territory using urine in dogs

How do bees tell the rest of the colony how far away the food source is from the hive?

Distance is based on the duration of the dance.

What is meant by the word ‘symbol’ in relation to communication?

Symbols are sounds, gestures, material objects or written words that have a specific meaning to a group of people.

What does human communication allow for that animal communication doesn’t?

The discussion of possible future outcomes based on present situations and expected outcomes.

During a conversation, what can looking away indicate?

Looking away can signal to the speaker that the listener isn’t interested.

Why might a person break eye contact during a conversation?

Because the listener wishes to speak.

Describe a closed posture. [3]

Hands held up to the chin [1] or the head lowered to protect the chin [1]; arms and legs are crossed [1].

a) What is personal space?

b) What can happen when someone invades your personal space?

a) An imaginary area that people view as their own territory.

b) People react in a number of ways, including feeling uncomfortable and adjusting their own position in order to regain territory.

Briefly describe Darwin’s theory of non-verbal communication. [4]

Non-verbal communication is an evolutionary mechanism - it is evolved and adaptive [1]. All manners (both human and non-human) show emotions through facial expressions [1]. This behaviour is universal and, therefore, is evolutionary [1]. Types of non-verbal behaviour persist in humans because they have been acquired for their value throughout evolutionary history [1].

Evaluate Yuki’s study of emotions. [4]

Lack of ecological validity because Yuki used computer-generated faces to test participants and not real faces [1]. Demand characteristics - participants were aware that they were taking part in a study so may not have given true responses [1]. Findings cannot be generalised because the study only looked at one element of emotion (happy/sad) and not any other emotions [1]. Yuki used students in the study - other groups may have reacted differently [1].

What is the difference between something being innate and something being learned? [2]

If something is innate then we are born with it [1]. If something is learned we are not born with it but learn it through our experiences and observations [1].

How does Piaget’s theory of language and thought differ from the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?

Piaget’s theory states that language determines thought and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that thinking is dependent on language.

How does some evidence challenge Piaget’s theory? [3]

Some children have severe learning difficulties but normal language development [1], suggesting that language development isn’t dependent on cognitive development [1]. Some studies have found that language development can accelerate cognitive development [1].

a) Name the 2 different types of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

b) How do these 2 types differ?

a) Strong version and weak version.

b) The strong version says that language determines thought and the weak version says that language influences thought.

How do animals use non-verbal communication to attract a mate? Give 2 examples.

Peacocks attract a mate using their plumage. Male birds of paradise engage in a complex dance to attract females.

Describe how two non-human animals might warn others of their species about danger, such as the presence of a predator.

Magpies chatter and rabbits thump their paws on the ground.

How do honeybees communicate the whereabouts of pollen-rich flowers to the rest of the hive? [4]

They engage in the waggle dance [1]. The direction the bee moves indicates the direction [1]. If the bee moves vertically, the direction to the source is directly towards the sun [1]. The duration of the waggle dance signifies the distance to the source from the hive [1].

What are the main differences between human and non-human animal communications?

Humans have an open vocal system and a larger bank of symbols to use in communication.

What do human communication systems allow humans to do that is absent in non-human behaviour?

To discuss the past, plan for the future and discuss future events.

In what ways does verbal communication differ from non-verbal communication? [4]

Verbal communication relies on the use of words [1]; non-verbal communication doesn’t rely on spoken or written words [1]. Non-verbal communication can include body posture or gestures [1]. It can also include certain aspects of language such as tone of voice [1].

Describe the difference between open and closed postures. [4]

Open postures involve leaving the body vulnerable [1], including having the chin raises and arms and legs uncrossed [1]. A closed posture ensures that vulnerable areas are protected by folding arms and crossing legs [1]. A closed posture is thought to be a defensive posture [1].

a) What is meant by postural echo?

b) What is the purpose of postural echo?

a) The mirroring or the adoption of the same posture as the person doing the talking.

b) Encourages mutual positive feelings.

How might a person use touch to show empathy?

Any of the following:

Tapping somebody lightly on the shoulder

Gently stroking their hand

Hugging them

Holding their hand

What factors affect personal space?

Culture norms, gender (when strangers, females stand further away), status (those of a similar status stand closer than those with a larger status gap).

According to Darwin, why did humans develop methods of non-verbal communication? [2]

Non-verbal communication is an evolutionary mechanism [1], allowing species to adapt and evolve [1].

Why is Darwin’s theory associated with nature rather than nurture? [3]

It is assumed that non-verbal behaviour is innate [1] (something we are born with rather than something learned) [1]. It is therefore nature rather than nurture [1].

Children who have been blind since birth still display the same facial expressions as sighted children. Why does this provide evidence for Darwin’s evolutionary theory of non-verbal communication?

In order to learn facial expressions from others, it is necessary to see other people with those expressions. A child has been blind since birth is unable to learn from what they cannot see, so the expressions they must have been present at birth.

What do we mean when we claim that non-verbal behaviour is learned?

Learned behaviour arises through observing others. Learning theories would argue that non-verbal behaviour is a learned response to watching other people display such behaviour.

In Yuki’s 2007 study, how did American and Japanese people differ in terms of their non-verbal communication? [4]

Americans responded to visual clues associated with the mouth [1] and Japanese people responded to eyes [1]. For example, while an American would identify a happy person from their upturned mouth [1], a Japanese person would focus on the eyes [1].

Why does Yuki’s study support a nurture theory of non-verbal communication? [2]

Yuki found that American and Japanese people focus on different areas of the face to identify emotional states [1]. If non-verbal behaviour was evolutionary, all cultures should identify emotions the same way but because Yuki found a difference, non-verbal behaviour must be learned [1].