RESEARCH CHAPTER 2 TO 5

DATA COLLECTION

Exciting component with interaction & collection of information based on study

TOOL

A research instrument. It is a device used to measure the concept of research in a research study.

DATA

Distinct piece of information which are collected, observed, or created for the purpose of analysis

DATA COLLECTION

A systematic process wherein the researcher collects the information from variety of sources to answer the research question.

ACCURATE DATA COLLECTION

Crucial to sustain the integrity and reliability of the research.

TYPES OF DATA

1. Primary Data (direct subject)

2. Secondary Data (various sources)

ADVANTAGE OF PRIMARY DATA

1. Tailored according to research needs

2. Defined and consistent protocol

3. Completeness of data is ensured

DISADVANTAGE OF PRIMARY DATA

1. Time consuming

2. Bias may occur due to various factors

3. Need to check reliability of raters

ADVANTAGE OF SECONDARY DATA

1. Easier and quicker

2. Absence of researcher’s biases

3. Economical and time saving

DISADVANTAGE OF SECONDARY DATA

1. May not be ideally suitable for answering current research question

2. Missed data and inaccuracy

3. Biases are commonly expected

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION (7)

1. Questionnaire

2. Interview

3. Observation

4. Physiological Measures

5. Projective Technique

6. Q Sort

7. Record Analysis

QUESTIONNAIRE

Common method of data collection and consists a set of questions designed according to aims and objectives of the research.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS (2)

1. Open ended (participant own words)

2. Closed ended (given choices/alternatives)

TYPES OF CLOSE ENDED QUESTIONS (5)

1. Dichotomous

2. Multiple Choice Questions

3. Filter Questions

4. Cafeteria Questions

5. Scale Response

DICHOTOMOUS QUESTIONS

To make choice between two response alternatives such as Yes/No, Agree/Disagree, Male/ Female

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Widely used questions with a high degree of objectivity and easy to analysis. It commonly contains 3 to 7 alternatives with 2 parts:

• Stem

• Distractors

TYPES OF MCQ (4)

1. The correct answer form

2. The best answer form

3. The multiple response form

4. The negative form

PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTING MCQ

1. Questions (stem) - worded clearly

2. Avoid long sentences, phrases or technical terms

3. Avoid double barrelled questions

4. Avoid leading questions

5. Responses should be arranged in logical sequence

6. Make all options reasonable and homogenous

FILTER QUESTIONS

Questions asked depend on the response from a previous question

CAFETERIA QUESTIONS

It is a special type of MCQ where respondents select the best response that most closely corresponds to their view (POV)

SCALED RESPONSE QUESTIONS

Closed ended questions in which response choices are designed to capture an intensity of feeling, attitude etc.

TYPES OF SCALED RESPONSE QUESTIONS (4)

1. Checklist

2. Rating

3. Likert

4. Semantic Differential Ranking

CHECKLIST

A Strategy to monitor specific skills or behaviours of the subjects and the simplest form of all tools

CHARACTERISTICS OF A CHECKLIST

1. Complete and comprehensive in itself

2. Short & concise

3. Arranged into logical sequence

4. Reviewed and properly validated

ADVANTAGE OF CHECKLIST

1. Can be completed even through mail

2. List of items provide guidelines

3. Useful for self evaluation and evaluation by others

4. Checklists have the objectivity to evaluate characteristics

5. Useful in obtaining large amount of data

DISADVANTAGE OF CHECKLIST

1. Restriction to select given option

2. Does not indicate quality or degree of performance

3. It has a limited use in qualitative research studies

RATING SCALE

Allows the respondents to place their responses like feelings, attitudes, performance tasks, skill levels, procedures, etc. This is consists of:

• First Column: Performance Statement

• Second Column: Range of Accomplishment

CHARACTERISTICS OF RATING SCALE

1. Clearly defined statement

2. Arranged in a logical sequence

3. Clear wording with number

4. Short to be practical

5. Clear terms

RATING SCALE DIVIDED INTO TWO:

1. Non-comparative Rating Scale (alone)

2. Comparative Rating Scale (relationship)

NON-COMPARATIVE RATING SCALE DIVIDED INTO TWO:

1. Continuous Graphic Rating Scale (rate with check mark)

2. Numerical Rating Scale (marks a number with description)

NUMERICAL RATING SCALE DIVIDED INTO THREE:

1. Likert Scale

2. Semantic Differential

3. Guttman Scale
   
   

LIKERT SCALE

Measure the attitudes of the subjects through series of statement which has possible responses. Measures the degree of agreement.

ADVANTAGE OF LIKERT SCALE

1. Easy to construct

2. High versatility

3. Easily measures the person’s attitude towards concept

DISADVANTAGE OF LIKERT SCALE

1. Results may not be accurate

2. Intervals between points don't present equal changes

3. Internal consistency of the scale may be difficult to achieve

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

Used to elicit attitudes and belief of the respondents. Lists the bipolar adjectives with 5 to 7 point scale.

USES OF SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

1. Patient Satisfaction Survey

2. Customer Satisfaction Survey

3. Employee Survey

4. Marketing Survey

5. Operational Research

6. Personality Measurements

7. Clinical psychology

ADVANTAGE OF SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

1. Easy to construct

2. Highly flexible

3. Useful in evaluating several concepts

DISADVANTAGE OF SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

1. Difficult to select relevant concepts appropriate for a given study.

2. Time consuming to find bipolar adjectives.

GUTTMAN SCALE OR CUMULATIVE SCALING

First described by Louise Guttman, 1944.

It provides for a progression of attitudes from week to strong.

Scale gradually increases the specificity.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS BEFORE DECIDING TO USE QUESTIONNAIRE (6)

1. Is using questionnaire optimal method?

2. What specific characteristics of population?

3. Literacy level of population?

4. Social or cultural issues?

5. Use the same existing or modifying questions?

6. Developing new questionnaire?

STEPS FOR USING EXISTING QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Determine the type of questionnaire available

2. Check if items are culturally appropriate

3. Check wordings if appropriate

4. Check meaning is not altered after translation

5. Check validity

STEPS INVOLVED IN DEVELOPMENT OF QUESTIONNAIRE (9)

1. Decide what information is required

2. Consider the target respondents

3. Choose the data collection method & reach respondent

4. Decide the content of the questionnaire

5. Develop the structure of questionnaire

6. Put questions into a meaningful order and format

7. Handle the validity and reliability issues

8. Pretest/pilot test the questionnaire

9. Develop the final questionnaire

COVER LETTER

Very important, especially for mailed questionnaire

ITEMS INCLUDED IN COVER LETTER

1. Name of researcher

2. Address and contact number of researcher

3. Title, purpose and objectives of study

4. Statement of confidentiality

5. Deadline for the return of questionnaire

6. Signature of researcher

PRE AND PILOT TESTING

Conducted to correct any problem or deficiency before

administration to the study subjects

TWO TYPES OF PRETEST

1. Participating Pretest (informs the participant)

2. Undeclared Pretest (doesn't inform participant)

REQUISITE FOR A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Write questions clear and concise

2. Avoid leading questions

3. Avoid double barrelled questions

4. Avoid double negatives

5. Simple and clear instructions

6. Avoid placing instructions at the bottom

METHODS OF ADMINISTRATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE TOOL

1. Researcher Administered

2. Self Administered

3. Telephone Interview

4. Using Internet

ADVANTAGE OF QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Applicable to wider and large number of samples

2. Anonymity will be maintained

3. Easy and economical

4. Free from interviewer related biases

5. Quick and easy quantification

6. More objectivity

DISADVANTAGE OF QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Not applicable to all individuals

2. Poor sample control

3. Response rate is low

4. High chances for missing information

5. Clarification of items are not possible

INTERVIEW

Two way verbal conversation between 2 or more people by the researcher

METHODS OF CONDUCTING INTERVIEW

1. Face-to-Face Interview

2. Telephonic Interview

3. Online Interview

FACE-TO-FACE INTERVIEW

Individual is interviewed and is unable to provide false information during screening questions like gender, age, race, etc. The quality of data depend on ability of the interviewer.

TELEPHONIC INTERVIEW

When it is not possible to contact the respondent directly then telephone interview can be conducted. It is flexible and cost effective than face-to-face interview.

ONLINE INTERVIEW

Computer mediated communication tools like instant messages, email, video chat technology (skype). It is quite costly and computer literacy is required.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW

1. Structured Interview (prepared list with options)

2. Semi-Structured Interview (probing for details)

3. Unstructured Interview (discussion and recorded)

4. In-depth Interview (exploring perceptions in details)

5. Focused Group Discussion (carefully planned discussion to obtain perceptions in a defined area of interest)

AFTER INTERVIEW

1. Check the tape recordings for completeness

2. Make sure all the materials are labelled

3. Assemble all materials and double check

4. Transcribe notes as soon as possible within 24 hours

STEPS IN CONDUCTING IN DEPTH INTERVIEW (7)

1. Greet participant in friendly manner

2. Establish good rapport

3. Informed consent and recording interview

4. Turn on tape recorder

5. Conduct interview as per interview guide

6. Give opportunity to ask questions

7. Turn off the recorder and thank the participant

ADVANTAGE OF INTERVIEW

1. It can be used even by respondent with less education

2. Valid & Complete information collected

3. Face-to-face contact with respondents

4. Opportunity to explore topics in depth

5. Unclear points can be clarified

DISADVANTAGE OF INTERVIEW

1. Expensive and time consuming

2. Need well-qualified and highly trained interviewers

3. Inaccurate in terms of getting the numerical data

4. Sometimes difficult to contact respondents

5. Quality of data depend on data collector

OBSERVATION

Investigator collects data by directly observing the study subjects. Permits researcher to watch and note actions and reactions.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION

1. Structured & Unstructured

2. Participatory & Nonparticipatory

3. Controlled & Uncontrolled

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION

Defined what to observe, method of recording and coding. Involves use of instrument like check list or rating scale.

UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION

Involves spontaneous observation and recording of observation. Require high degree of concentration & attention

PARTICIPATORY OBSERVATION

Respondent become conscious leading to Hawthorne effect

NONPARTICIPATORY OBSERVATION

Researcher becomes the part of the process

CONTROLLED AND UNCONTROLLED OBSERVATION

• Observation takes place in definite prearranged plans

• Observation takes place in natural condition

CONSIDERATIONS IN USING OBSERVATION

1. Determine the behaviour to be observed

2. Decide the type of observation

3. Decide the time of observation

4. Train the observers

5. Decide how observations will be recorded

ADVANTAGE OF OBSERVATION

1. Provides directinformation about behaviour of individuals/groups

2. Information obtained are reliable & accurate

3. No bias

DISADVANTAGE OF OBSERVATION

1. Difficult, expensive and time consuming

2. Hawthorne effect

3. Need well qualified and trained observers

4. Need content experts

5. Quality of data depend on the observer