Ch. 4 - Cognition, Consciousness, and Language

7% of MCAT P/S content

How does the brain process stimuli in relation to conscious awareness?

The brain processes and makes decisions about the importance of various stimuli below the level of conscious awareness.

What does the information processing model state about brain function?

the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information much like a computer.

How does the ability to think abstractly develop?

develops over the lifespan and is influenced by brain maturation, culture, genes, and environment.

What are the four stages of Piaget’s cognitive development?

1. Sensorimotor Stage

2. Preoperational Stage

3. Concrete Operational Stage

4. Formal Operational Stage

What does sensorimotor stage the focus on?

on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs through circular reactions; ends with object permanence.

What does preoperational stage the focus on?

on symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration.

What does concrete operational stage the focus on?

on understanding others' feelings and manipulating concrete objects.

What does formal operational stage the focus on?

on abstract thought and problem-solving.

What cognitive changes occur with aging?

Mild cognitive decline is normal, but significant changes may indicate an underlying disorder.

What biological factors influence cognition?

Organic brain disorders, genetic and chromosomal conditions, metabolic derangements, and drug use.

What are the steps involved in problem solving?

Identification and understanding of the problem, generation of potential solutions, testing potential solutions, and evaluation of results.

What is a mental set, and how can it impact problem solving?

a pattern of approach for a problem.

An inappropriate mental set may negatively impact problem solving.

What is functional fixedness?

The tendency to use objects only in their typical way, creating barriers to problem solving.

What are the types of problem solving?

Trial-and-error, algorithms

deductive reasoning (conclusions from general rules)

inductive reasoning (generalizations from evidence).

What are heuristics, and how do they influence decision making?

shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make decisions, which can assist but may also lead to errors.

What are biases in decision making?

occur when a decision maker cannot objectively evaluate information, leading to errors.

What is intuition in decision making?

a "gut feeling" often based on prior experience with similar situations.

How does emotional state affect decision making?

can influence decisions, sometimes leading to errors.

What are the eight areas of intelligence in Gardner’s theory?

Linguistic, logical–mathematical, musical, visual–spatial, bodily–kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.

What factors contribute to variations in intellectual ability?

Environment, education, and genetics.

What are the main states of consciousness?

Alertness, sleep, dreaming, and altered states of consciousness.

What is alertness, and which waves predominate on EEG during this state?

the state of being awake and able to think, perceive, process, and express information.

Beta and alpha waves predominate on EEG.

What happens during Stage 1 of sleep?

light sleep dominated by theta waves on EEG.

What happens during Stage 2 of sleep?

slightly deeper, with theta waves, sleep spindles, and K complexes.

What characterizes Stage 3 and 4 of sleep?

deep (slow-wave) sleep (SWS), dominated by delta waves on EEG.

What sleep-wake disorders occur during Stage 3 and 4 of sleep?

Most sleep-wake disorders occur during Stage 3 and 4 non-REM sleep, such as night terrors and sleepwalking.

What is the focus of dreaming in slow-wave sleep (SWS)?

focuses on consolidating declarative memories.

What happens during REM sleep, and what is its role?

sometimes called paradoxical sleep, as the mind appears close to awake, but the body is paralyzed.

Dreaming in REM focuses on consolidating procedural memories.

What is the typical sleep cycle for adults?

Stage 1–2–3–4–3–2–REM, or 1–2–3–4–REM, with REM becoming more frequent toward the morning.

How do melatonin and cortisol affect sleep and wakefulness?

Melatonin is released by the pineal gland in response to evening light changes, causing sleepiness.

Cortisol levels increase in the early morning to promote wakefulness.

What is the typical cycle of circadian rhythms?

typically follow a 24-hour cycle.

When does most dreaming occur, and what is the role of dreaming in different stages?

occurs during REM sleep, but some dreaming happens in other sleep stages.

What are some examples of sleep-wake disorders?

Dyssomnias (e.g., insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, sleep deprivation)

Parasomnias (e.g., night terrors, sleepwalking).

What is hypnosis, and how is it commonly used?

a state of consciousness where individuals are highly suggestible

It is often used for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, and smoking cessation.

What is meditation, and what purposes does it serve?

the quieting of the mind, often used for anxiety relief and has played a role in many world religions.

How are consciousness-altering drugs categorized?

grouped into depressants, stimulants, opiates, and hallucinogens.

What are some examples of depressants, and how do they work?

promote or mimic GABA activity in the brain.

ex. alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines.

What are stimulants, and how do they affect neurotransmitters?

increase dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin concentrations at the synaptic cleft.

ex. amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy.

What are opiates and opioids, and what are the risks?

can cause death by respiratory depression.

ex. heroin, morphine, opium, and prescription pain medications like oxycodone and hydrocodone.

What are hallucinogens, and can you name a few examples?

ex. lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), peyote, mescaline, ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms.

What are the effects of marijuana, and what is its active ingredient?

Marijuana has depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogenic effects. Its active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

How is drug addiction mediated in the brain?

by the mesolimbic pathway, which includes the nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area.

Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter in this pathway.

What is selective attention?

allows one to focus on a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in the background require attention.

What is divided attention?

uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at the same time.

What are the components of language?

consists of phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.

What does phonology refer to in language?

refers to the actual sounds of speech.

What is morphology in language?

refers to the building blocks of words

ex. rules for pluralization (–s in English) and past tense (–ed).

What does semantics refer to?

refers to the meaning of words.

What is syntax in language?

refers to the rules dictating word order in sentences.

What is pragmatics in language?

refers to how language delivery changes depending on context.

What does the nativist (biological) theory explain about language acquisition?

explains language acquisition as being innate and controlled by the language acquisition device (LAD).

How does the learning (behaviorist) theory explain language acquisition?

explains language acquisition as being controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by caregivers.

What does the social interactionist theory explain about language acquisition?

explains language acquisition as being driven by the motivation to communicate and interact with others.

What does the Whorfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis state?

states that the lens through which we view and interpret the world is shaped by language.

What is the function of Broca’s area in language?

controls the motor function of speech.

Damage results in Broca’s aphasia, a nonfluent aphasia where generating words requires great effort.

What is the function of Wernicke’s area in language?

controls language comprehension.

Damage results in Wernicke’s aphasia, a fluent but nonsensical aphasia with a lack of comprehension.

What is the arcuate fasciculus, and what happens if it is damaged?

connects Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area.

Damage results in conduction aphasia, where individuals cannot repeat words heard despite intact speech generation and comprehension.