Health Psych Final (Old Material + New Material)

biomedical model

explains that all illnesses can be explained by abnormal somatic processes

biopsychosocial model

explains that health is influences by biological factors (genetic vulnerability, immune function, neurochemistry), psychological factors (stress, hostility, personality, emotions), and social factors (social relations, culture, education, family)

poor health behaviors

what accounts for 50% of deaths today?

correlational method

simply as association/relationship between 2 variables; a measure of the strength of the association between 2 variables

• does NOT prove causality

experimental design

researchers actively manipulate the independent variable to test causation

quasi-experimental design

comparison of groups without random assignment - can determine causality

moderator

the variable the changes the magnitude and/or direction of the relation between the IV and DV; the reason people experience the IV in different levels

• ex: testing a new pain med

  • control group: doesn’t receive med

  • treatment group: received med

  • moderator: the pain does not decrease for the people who never had pain in the first place

mediator

variable through which the IV is related to the DV; explains how A is related to B

• gratitude lowers stress

  • why?

    • mediator: gratitude generates positive feelings which reduces stress

confounding variable

variable that is potentially responsible for the change in the DV, but not the IV

retrospective

predictor variables measured AFTER outcome variables already known; measuring outcome variable before the predictor variable.

• ex: does stress cause ulcers?

  • 1st: measure ulcers

  • 2nd: measure stress

prospective

predictor variables are measured BEFORE the outcome variable

• ex: does stress cause ulcers?

  • 1st: measure stress

  • 2nd: measure ulcers

cross-sectional

collecting data from a sample at one point in time; a one and done; measures predictor + outcome variables at the same time

longitudinal

collecting data from sample at more than one point in time

internal validity

likelihood that changes of DV were caused by the IV; the extent you can conclude that the IV caused the DV

external validity

likelihood that the other same results would be obtained using the same study with other people and other situations; generalizability

meta-analysis

combines data from multiple individual studies to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon, provides the average effect size (magnitude of association) across all studies

allostatic load

repeated allostasis (anticipation reaction, maintaining homeostasis, process of trying to adapt) associated with cumulative physiological cost

• constant allostasis puts strain on body

• ex: chronic financial stress

autonomic nervous system

manages internal organs without conscious control

• 2 parts: sympathetic + parasympathetic nervous systems

sympathetic nervous system

mobilizes body to react to stressor or activity

• responsible for fight or flight

• ex: increases heart rate, opens lungs, dilates pupils, inhibits salivation, increases blood glucose, stimulates adrenal gland to release catecholamines

parasympathetic nervous system

restores body to normal state after arousal

• responsible for rest and digest

• ex: slows heart rate, stimulates digestion, constricts long passages, contracts pupils, promotes salivation, lowers blood glucose

endocrine system

regulates system that releases hormones

• parts: pituitary gland, hypothalamus, adrenal glands

pituitary gland

master gland; secretes hormones that directly influence other endocrine glands and secretes its own hormones

• part of endocrine system

hypothalamus

controls pituitary gland

• part of endocrine system

adrenal glands

releases epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol

• part of endocrine system

how does stress affect the endocrine system?

stress → CNS → hypothalamus → SAM (sympathetic adrenal medullary) activates and releases epinephrine + norepinephrine → HPA (hypothalamic pituitary adrenal) activates and releases cortisol

catecholamines- epinephrine + norepinephrine

SAM (sympathetic adrenal medullary) releases…

cortisol

HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) releases…

Social Readjustment Rating Scale

a list of positive and negative events that could possibly be causing us stress; each event has a “life change unit” which is correlated with the level of stress the even causes

daily hassles

minor annoying events which require some degree of adjustment; they occur frequently

negative

daily hassles have a _____ effect on health

perceived stress

appraisals of life situations as unpredictable and overwhelming

indirect effect, direct effect, diathesis-stress

what are the models of stress and illness?

indirect effect model of stress

stress leads to unhealthy behaviors in attempt to cope with stress

• stress → unhealthy behavior → physiological changes → disease

direct effect model of stress

straight link between stress and physiological changes leading to disease

• stress → physiological reaction → disease

diathesis-stress model

explains how disorders develop from predisposed factors and environmental stress

• need both to develop

fight or flight

physiological stress response

• preparation for mobilization

  • running or defending/attacking

• supports direct effect model of stress

general adaptation syndrome

summarized model of the body’s attempt to defend itself against stressors

• at first the body adapts to the stress, but eventually breaks down if stress is chronic

• supports direct effect model of stress

cardiovascular reactivity

reaction to stress in heart

poor social support/connections

__________ leads to a greater decrease in mortality than smoking, drinking, and other risky behaviors

direct effect hypothesis

social ties provide protection during stressful and non-stressful times

• regardless of our stress level, social ties benefit our health

buffering hypothesis

social ties provide protection against negative effects of stress

cognitive appraisal, health behaviors, adherence, psychoneuroimmunological pathways

potential mechanisms between social support and health

cognitive appraisal

people around us help us evaluate the stress a situation/events brings us

• potential mechanism between social support and health

health behaviors

exercise, diet, substance use effected by social relations

• positive:

  • stress reduction, encouragement + motivation, helpful info

• negative:

  • encourages negative behavior, increase stress, bad coping strategies (drinking, smoking)

• potential mechanisms between social support and health

adherence

Specific to adhering to our medical provider’s indications, the rates are barely low, in regards to people not doing it.

• Tends to fail in the realm of people we live with

• don’t forget medication, don't forget this

• Related to health behaviors

• potential mechanisms between social support and health

psychoneuroimmunological pathways

social relations moderate physiological responses to stress

• the dynamics of our social relations determine our appraisal of a situation → affects our stress response

• can be positive or negative

  • positive: more social relations

  • negative: no/little social relations

• potential mechanisms between social support and health

tend-and-befriend hypothesis

a psychological theory that suggest when women get stressed they engage in nurturing + protective behaviors and seek social support

if they had control → happier, more alert, more active

Langer et Radin, residents with control vs without

hardiness

a trait that allows people to experience excessive amounts of stress without experiencing any health outcomes

explanatory style

how we explain the causes or future outcomes of bad things that happen to us

• a cognitive personality variable

• developed to help understand depression

internality vs externality, stability vs instability, globality vs specificity

3 dimensions of explanatory style

internality

making an internal attribution for bad things that happen to us

• self-blame

• ex: applying for a job + gets rejected → there is something wrong with me, I am not hirable, I am not good enough

• part of explanatory style

stability

“this is going to keep happening to me”

• ex: applying for a job + gets rejected → I am NEVER going to get a job

• over a time period

• part of explanatory style

globality

you think your life is bad, things are not going well

• spreads to all aspects of your life

• ex: applying for job + gets rejects → nothing in my life is going well

• part of explanatory style

health behaviors model

personality + health model

• personality → health-related behaviors → health

• mediation model, mediator: health behaviors

• it is not RANDOM who engages in these behaviors

disease caused personality changes

explains nothing about how personality causes poor health

• personality + health model

• disease → personality

• disease → psychological reaction → personality

  • you get diagnosed with cancer and then get very anxious

• disease → treatment → personality

  • medication used to treat disease has side effects

stress moderation

personality moderates the effect of stress on health

• personality + health model

• our personality traits intensify or weaken our physiological responses to stress

  • ex: in traffic

    • high hostile person: gets angry, face gets red, increase blood pressure + heart rate = bigger stress response

    • low hostile person: heart rate rises a little = no stress response / minimal stress response

situation selection

personality → situations → health

• personality + health model

• mediation model

  • situations mediate

• personality influences the situations we are in which could affect health

  • ex: people who are smart/driven go to more schoo

    • they have a lower mortality rate

social relationships model

personality → social relationships → health

• personality + health model

• mediation model

  • mediator: social relationships

• people who are extroverted / more social have more social relationships

extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness/intellect

the big 5 personality traits

conscientiousness

what big 5 personality trait predicts longevity and positive health behaviors?

Type A Behavior Pattern

• traits: competitive, hurried, hostile, tense

• linked with heart disease

• created by cardiologists

hostility

what is the unhealthy aspect of a Type A personality?

problem-focused coping

actions taken to change a stressful situation or reduce its effects

• actively truing to change the source of stress

• most effective

• coping with stress

• ex: unhappy with job → work on getting a new job

• ex: not doing well in class → talk to professor, go to office hours

emotion-focused coping

attempts to reduce distress emotions

• not addressing source of stress, but addressing feelings

• best for situations OUT OF our control

• coping with stress

• ex: unhappy with job → talk about feelings + seek social support

approach coping

changing cognitions or expressing emotions

• more effective

• taking emotions head on, dealing with feelings

• type of emotion-focused coping

• ex: expressive writing, positive reappraisal (always taking positive from a situation)

avoidance coping

ignoring or denying the problem

• ignore emotions about situation

• in denial

• suppress emotions

• can cause situation to worsen

• can on occasion be beneficial - distracting yourself from surgery

• ex: abusing alcohol, distracting yourself, sleeping all day

effects of religiosity

better health, increased longevity

effects of expressive writing

better self-rated health, enhanced immune functioning, less doctors visits

effects of gratitude

better psychological + physical well-being

effects of mindfulness

stronger immune system, lower blood pressure, less pain

effects of spending time in nature

lowers depression, lowers chronic illness, lowers stress

effects of humor

increasing social support, inducing positive emotional states, decrease stress

effects of self-affirmation

lowers stress

temptation bundling

pairing immediately satisfying activities with those that require more effort but provide long-term benefits

• ex: you should ride the stationary bike, there are long term positive effects. to encourage riding the bike, you only watch TV on the stationary bike

friction

the addition or removal of an external barrier to make the desired behavior more difficult or easier to do (addition → harder, removal → easier)

ex: restaurants + public places banned smoking, it makes it inconvenient to smoke → less smoking

health belief model

the idea that people will not partake in preventative health behaviors if they believe they are not at risk

• continuum model of health behaviors

perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers

4 components of health belief model

theory of planned behavior

general model about people’s behaviors

• assumes people are RATIONAL and make rational choices

• continuum model

behavioral intentions : attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control

components of theory of planned behavior

attitudes

a person’s feelings about engaging in a particular behavior

• how do I feel about the behavior?

• a part of the theory of planned behavior

subjective norms

people’s beliefs about whether others would support them in changing their behavior + beliefs about what other people are doing

• will people in my life be supportive of this?

• what are other people doing?

• part of the theory of planned behavior

perceived behavioral control

the extent to which a person believes they will be able to engage in a behavior

• same thing as self-efficacy

• part of the theory of planned behavior

implementation intentions

specific plans for when, where, and how one will engage in behavior

• a small goal to help achieve a bigger goal

• in response to the theory of planned behavior

transtheoretical model

explains behavior change as a complex process that is not always linear (includes relapse, setbacks)

• stage model

• components: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, termination

self-efficacy

the most important aspect of models of health behavior…

primary prevention

taking measures to prevent illness

• easiest + cheapest

• preventing a disease from developing

• ex: getting a vaccine, wearing sunscreen, healthy diet, working out

secondary prevention

detecting or treating illness at an early stage as a way of reducing the illness’s potential effects

• possibility that disease has already developed, BUT want to catch it early

• treating + containing at early stage

• ex: screenings (mammograms, blood tests, bone scans)

tertiary prevention

actions taken to minimize or slow the damage caused by an illness that has developed PAST an early stage

• most expensive

• need a treatment

• ex: chemotherapy, surgery

loss-framed messages

emphasizes costs of behavioral choice

• focuses on negative

• more effective for screening/detection behaviors

• ex: if you don’t quit smoking, you are more likely to die an early death

• ex: a disease associated with a 50% mortality rate

gain-framed messages

emphasizes benefits of behavioral choice

• the benefits/positives

• more effective for prevention behaviors

• ex: a disease is associated with a 50% survival rate

• ex: if you quit smoking, you will enjoy healthy lungs

moderate level of fear, provide strategy for change, focus on short-term consequences

when are fear-based messages effective?

behavioral nudges

interventions that aim to promote positive behaviors without limiting their choice

• a harmless push that could possibly lead to a behavior change

• cheap, free

• makes the desirable behavior easier to achieve

• ex: when you walk into dining hall, the first food in front of you is fruit/vegetable → not making you take fruit, but making it more convenient

nicotine regulation model

“people smoke because it feels good, but they need to smoke enough for it to feel good (nicotine set-point)

• nicotine level must be above body’s “set-point” to provide pleasurable effects

• nicotine-based model of smoking

affect-regulation model

people smoke to increase positive affect (to enhance pleasure) or decrease negative affect (to cope)