Amendments 16-27

Sixteenth Amendment (1913)

Authorizes Congress to impose a federal income tax without apportioning it among the states according to population.

Sixteenth Amendment (Text Summary)

Congress has the power to collect taxes on incomes from any source without apportionment among the states.

Sixteenth Amendment (Purpose)

Provided the constitutional authority for a permanent federal income tax system.

Income Tax

A tax imposed by the government on earnings, wages, investments, and other forms of income.

Direct Tax

A tax imposed directly on individuals or property that historically required apportionment among states.

Apportionment Requirement

The constitutional requirement that certain direct taxes be divided among states based on population.

Taxation Power

The constitutional authority of government to impose and collect taxes.

Federal Revenue

Money collected by the national government to fund programs, services, and operations.

Internal Revenue Service (IRS)

The federal agency responsible for administering and enforcing federal tax laws.

Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895)

Supreme Court case holding that certain federal income taxes were unconstitutional because they were direct taxes requiring apportionment.

Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895) (Significance)

Led to the adoption of the Sixteenth Amendment.

Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co. (1916)

Supreme Court case upholding the constitutionality of the federal income tax after ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment.

Taxing and Spending Clause

Article I, Section 8 power allowing Congress to collect taxes and spend money for national purposes.

Federal Spending Power

The authority of Congress to use tax revenue to fund government programs and influence state policies.

Seventeenth Amendment (1913)

Established the direct election of United States senators by voters rather than selection by state legislatures.

Seventeenth Amendment (Text Summary)

Senators shall be elected by the people of each state for six-year terms.

Seventeenth Amendment (Purpose)

Increased democratic participation and reduced corruption in Senate selection.

Direct Election of Senators

The process by which citizens vote for their state's senators.

Original Senate Selection Method

The process in which state legislatures chose senators before the Seventeenth Amendment.

Proressive Era (1890s-1920s)

A reform movement focused on increasing democracy, reducing corruption, and expanding government regulation.

Progressive Reform

Political changes intended to make government more accountable and democratic.

Political Machines

Organizations that controlled elections through patronage, favors, and political influence.

Corruption Reform

Efforts to reduce unethical political practices.

State Legislature Election of Senators

The pre-Seventeenth Amendment method where state lawmakers selected senators.

Popular Sovereignty Connection

The Seventeenth Amendment expanded direct voter control over government officials.

Seventeenth Amendment Federalism Impact

Reduced state legislatures' direct influence over the federal government.

Eighteenth Amendment (1919)

Established national prohibition of the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages.

Eighteenth Amendment (Text Summary)

Prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors within the United States.

Eighteenth Amendment (Purpose)

Attempted to reduce alcohol-related social problems through nationwide prohibition.

Prohibition

The nationwide ban on the production, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages.

Temperance Movement

A social movement advocating reduced or eliminated alcohol consumption.

Volstead Act (1919)

Federal law defining and enforcing the prohibition of alcoholic beverages.

Volstead Act Enforcement

Provided the legal framework for implementing the Eighteenth Amendment.

Bootlegging

The illegal production, transportation, or sale of alcohol during Prohibition.

Speakeasy

An illegal establishment that sold alcoholic beverages during Prohibition.

Organized Crime Connection

Criminal organizations gained power through illegal alcohol markets during Prohibition.

Twenty-First Amendment (1933)

Repealed the Eighteenth Amendment and ended national prohibition.

Twenty-First Amendment (Text Summary)

Repealed prohibition and returned regulation of alcohol primarily to the states.

Twenty-First Amendment (Purpose)

Ended the unsuccessful national prohibition experiment.

Repeal

The constitutional process of canceling or removing a previous amendment or law.

Only Repealed Amendment

The Twenty-First Amendment is the only amendment adopted specifically to repeal another amendment.

State Alcohol Regulation

The authority of states to regulate alcohol after repeal of Prohibition.

Nineteenth Amendment (1920)

Prohibited denying the right to vote based on sex.

Nineteenth Amendment (Text Summary)

The right of citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex.

Nineteenth Amendment (Purpose)

Expanded voting rights to women nationwide.

Women's Suffrage Movement

The movement seeking voting rights for women.

Suffrage

The legal right to vote.

Women's Rights Movement

A broader movement advocating political, legal, and social equality for women.

Seneca Falls Convention (1848)

Early women's rights convention that demanded expanded rights and suffrage for women.

Susan B. Anthony

Women's suffrage leader who advocated for women's voting rights.

National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)

Organization that promoted women's suffrage and helped achieve the Nineteenth Amendment.

Equal Voting Rights

The principle that citizens should not be denied voting rights based on sex.

Twentieth Amendment (1933)

Changed the beginning dates of presidential and congressional terms and reduced the lame-duck period.

Twentieth Amendment (Text Summary)

Presidential terms begin January 20 and congressional terms begin January 3.

Twentieth Amendment (Purpose)

Improved government efficiency by shortening the period between election and taking office.

Lame Duck Period

The time after an election when an outgoing official remains in office before a successor takes over.

Lame Duck Congress

A session of Congress occurring after elections but before newly elected members take office.

Presidential Transition

The process of transferring executive authority from one president to another.

Presidential Succession

The constitutional process for replacing a president who cannot serve.

Twenty-Second Amendment (1951)

Limits presidents to two elected terms in office.

Twenty-Second Amendment (Text Summary)

No person may be elected president more than twice.

Twenty-Second Amendment (Purpose)

Prevents extended presidential rule and limits executive power.

Presidential Term Limit

The constitutional restriction on the number of terms a president may serve.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945)

President elected four times, leading to the adoption of the Twenty-Second Amendment.

Twenty-Third Amendment (1961)

Granted residents of Washington, D.C. the ability to vote for presidential electors.

Twenty-Third Amendment (Text Summary)

The District of Columbia receives electoral votes equal to its number of senators and representatives, but no more than the least populous state.

Twenty-Third Amendment (Purpose)

Provided presidential voting representation to citizens living in Washington, D.C.

District of Columbia Voting Rights

The constitutional right of Washington, D.C. residents to participate in presidential elections.

Electoral College Connection

The amendment allowed D.C. residents to participate in presidential elections through electoral votes.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964)

Prohibited poll taxes in federal elections.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment (Text Summary)

The right to vote in federal elections cannot be denied because of failure to pay a poll tax.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment (Purpose)

Removed financial barriers used to suppress voting, especially among African Americans and poor citizens.

Poll Tax

A fee required before voting that historically limited voting access.

Voting Barriers

Restrictions designed to prevent certain groups from participating in elections.

Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966)

Supreme Court case banning poll taxes in state elections under the Equal Protection Clause.

Harper v. Virginia (1966) (Significance)

Extended protection against poll taxes beyond federal elections.

Twenty-Fifth Amendment (1967)

Established procedures for presidential succession and handling presidential inability.

Twenty-Fifth Amendment (Text Summary)

Provides procedures for presidential vacancy, vice presidential replacement, and presidential inability.

Twenty-Fifth Amendment (Purpose)

Creates a clear constitutional process for presidential succession.

Presidential Succession Clause

The constitutional process for replacing a president who dies, resigns, or is removed.

Vice Presidential Vacancy

The situation in which the office of vice president becomes empty.

Presidential Disability

The inability of a president to perform the duties of office.

Section 3 (Twenty-Fifth Amendment)

Allows a president to voluntarily transfer power when unable to perform duties.

Section 4 (Twenty-Fifth Amendment)

Allows the vice president and cabinet to declare presidential inability.

Acting President

An official temporarily performing presidential duties.

Twenty-Sixth Amendment (1971)

Lowered the voting age from twenty-one to eighteen years old.

Twenty-Sixth Amendment (Text Summary)

Citizens eighteen years or older cannot be denied the right to vote based on age.

Twenty-Sixth Amendment (Purpose)

Expanded voting rights to younger citizens.

Voting Age

The minimum age required to participate in elections.

Youth Suffrage Movement

The movement advocating voting rights for eighteen-year-old citizens.

Vietnam War Connection

The Twenty-Sixth Amendment was influenced by arguments that citizens old enough to fight should be allowed to vote.

Twenty-Seventh Amendment (1992)

Limits congressional pay changes by preventing salary increases from taking effect until after the next election.

Twenty-Seventh Amendment (Text Summary)

Any change in congressional compensation cannot take effect until after an election of representatives.

Twenty-Seventh Amendment (Purpose)

Prevents members of Congress from immediately benefiting from their own salary increases.

Congressional Compensation

The salary and benefits provided to members of Congress.

Self-Dealing Prevention

The principle of preventing government officials from creating immediate personal financial benefits.

Delayed Effect Rule

The requirement that congressional pay changes must wait until after an election.

Longest Ratification Period

The Twenty-Seventh Amendment holds the record for the longest time between congressional proposal and ratification.

Amendment Ratification Process

The constitutional process requiring approval by three-fourths of states.

Article V

The constitutional article establishing the process for proposing and ratifying amendments.