History and Research Methods in Psychology

Vocabulary flashcards generated from the provided study guide covering foundational concepts in psychology history, major theoretical perspectives, types of psychologists, scientific methodologies, statistics, and human research ethics.

Psychology

The scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior—exploring how we think, feel, and act using objective research.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

The controversy over whether our behavior is determined by genetics (nature) or shaped by environmental experiences (nurture).

Wilhelm Wundt

The German psychologist who established the first experimental psychology laboratory in 1879, founding psychology as a scientific discipline.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology that aimed to identify the basic elements or structures of conscious mental experience.

Introspection

A self-report research method where participants look inward to report their moment-to-moment sensations, feelings, and thoughts.

Functionalism

An early school of psychology focused on understanding the adaptive functions or purposes of conscious thought and behavior.

Behaviorism

A school of psychology focused strictly on observable actions and how environmental rewards and punishments drive learning.

Cognitivism

A school of psychology focused on internal mental processes like thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving.

Psychoanalysis

A psychological perspective focused on unconscious mental processes, hidden impulses, and early childhood experiences.

Humanistic and Positive Psychology

A movement in psychology focused on personal growth, human potential, self-actualization, and positive psychological states like happiness.

Clinical Psychologists

Mental health professionals who assess, diagnose, and treat mental illness and conduct clinical research.

Counseling Psychologists

Psychologists who help people manage temporary, everyday challenges like career decisions, grief, and relationship problems.

School Psychologists

Psychologists who work with students, parents, and educators to address emotional, behavioral, and learning difficulties in schools.

Forensic Psychologists

Psychologists who apply psychological science to the legal and criminal justice system, assessing inmates and studying jury decisions.

Industrial-Organizational (IO) Psychologists

Psychologists who apply psychological principles to workplaces to optimize employee hiring, productivity, and work conditions.

Empiricism

The scientific approach of acquiring knowledge through direct, objective observation and evidence rather than intuition or logic alone.

Replication

Repeating a research study under similar conditions to verify if original findings can be reproduced consistently.

Publication

The process of making research findings public by publishing detailed reports in scientific, peer-reviewed journals.

Goals of Scientific Study of Behavior

The four main targets of research: describing behavior, predicting behavior, identifying causes of behavior, and explaining behavior.

Observational Research

A descriptive research design where scientists systematically observe and record behavior without interfering.

Correlational Research

A research design that measures two or more variables to evaluate whether a statistical relationship exists between them.

Experimental Research

A study design where researchers manipulate an independent variable to directly measure its causal effect on a dependent variable.

Scientific Theory

A broad, well-tested explanation that integrates and accounts for a large body of scientific findings.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables, often framed as an 'if… then…' statement.

Peer Review

The evaluation of research papers by independent experts in the field before work is accepted for publication.

Variable

Any factor, trait, or condition in a study that can vary or take on different measurable values.

Manipulated Variable

The variable in an experiment that is deliberately controlled and altered by the researcher (the independent variable).

Measured Variable

The variable that is observed and recorded without direct researcher manipulation (such as test scores or heart rate).

Operational Definition

A precise definition of a variable that specifies the exact procedures or metrics used to observe and measure it.

Sample

The specific subset of individuals selected from a larger population to participate in a research study.

Population

The entire group of interest that a researcher wants to study and generalize findings to.

Biased Sample

A sample selected in a non-representative way, giving certain individuals a higher chance of inclusion than others.

Random Sampling

A selection technique where every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for a study sample.

Coding Scheme

A standardized set of definitions and rules used by researchers to identify, count, and categorize observed behaviors.

Naturalistic Observational Study

A research design where subjects are systematically observed in their real-world environment without experimenter intervention.

Case Study

An in-depth, comprehensive investigation of a single participant or small group, often used for rare medical or psychological conditions.

Correlation Coefficient ($r$)

A statistic ranging from $-1$ to $1$ ($-1 \le r \le 1$) that measures the direction and strength of a linear relationship between two variables.

Spurious Correlation

An apparent statistical relationship between two variables that occurs purely by coincidence or due to an unmeasured third variable.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable in an experiment that the researcher directly manipulates to test its causal effects.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable measured in an experiment to evaluate whether it changes in response to the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental conditions strictly by chance so that groups are equivalent at the start of a study.

Confound

An uncontrolled outside variable that changes along with the independent variable, confusing cause-and-effect conclusions.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability refers to getting consistent measurements upon repeated testing; validity refers to accurately measuring what you intend to measure.

Statistical Tests

Mathematical techniques used to decide whether observed differences between groups are real effects or random chance variations.

p-value

A calculated probability ($p$) indicating how likely an observed research result occurred strictly by chance.

Statistical Significance

A conclusion reached when a calculated p-value is low enough to suggest an effect is real rather than a result of random luck.

Beneficence

An ethical principle obligating researchers to protect human participants by maximizing research benefits while minimizing harm.

Autonomy

An ethical principle asserting that human subjects must voluntarily give informed consent without feeling pressured or coerced.

Justice

An ethical principle requiring the fair and equal distribution of research risks and benefits across diverse population groups.

Mean

A measure of central tendency calculated by adding all scores in a data set and dividing by the total count (the arithmetic average).

Median

A measure of central tendency representing the exact middle score when data values are ordered from lowest to highest.

Mode

A measure of central tendency representing the single score or value that occurs most frequently in a dataset.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical values (like mean, median, or range) used to summarize, organize, and describe the basic features of a dataset.

Inferential Statistics

Statistical tools that allow researchers to draw conclusions and infer whether sample results accurately reflect the broader population.