PSY:3030 Social and Personality Development Exam 1

What are the 5 questions of Developmental Research

1. What is the nature of the child?

2. What drives development?

3. What is the child's role in development?

4. How does development progress?

5. Can we tell the future from the past

What is the nature of the child?

Evil: child requires socialization; innately evil

-- child is born inherently selfish

Good: child will blossom if given freedom; innately pure

-- bad outcomes result from something spoiling the child's experience

Blank Slate: child reflect individual history

-- reflect their socialization

-- child is neither good nor bad

What drives development?

nature and nurture

What is the child's role in development?

passive

-- top down approach

active

-- parents recognize that children direct a lot of momentum

both are important in development

-- parent influences child and child influences parents

How does development progress?

continuous

discontinuous

Continuous

cumulative effect

-- things happen gradually

-- child is the same person going through the developmental growth

-- assumes development is incremental --> traits build up slowly after time but the child remains the same

discontinous

stages

-- development is much more dramatic

-- something may happen at one stage but not the other

-- same child may completely transform by next stage; children act very differently in different stages

can we tell future from the past?

Yes: stable traits or significant experiences that carry forward, especially during the 1st year

-- predicting from the past may be done in different ways

No: situational specificity

Major theories of development

classical

-- psychoanalytic (Freud, Erikson, contemporary neopsychoanalysis)

-- learning (Watson, Skinner, Bandura)

-- cognitive (piaget)

recent

-- biological (ethology, behavior genetics, temperament)

-- ecological (Bronfenbrenner, Belsky)

Psychoanalytic theorist

freud and erikson

learning theorist

watson, skinner, bandura

cognitive theorist

piaget

ecological theorist

bronfenbrenner, Belsky

Methodology

How data are gathered

How development change is captured

How studies are designed

how is data gathered?

Reports: questionnaires, structured interviews, narratives, and clinical interviews

observational methodologies

biological measures

how developmental change is captured?

cross-sectional designs, longitudinal designs, or combination of both

how are studies designed (control/manipulation of variables, randomization)?

correlational or experimental designs

Positives and negatives of Questionnaires/structured interviews

Positives (+): quick, cheap, easy, standard

Negatives (-): validity problems (people sometimes say one thing and do another)

-- however, many new report instruments have been extremely carefully developed and are successfully used for research and clinical, diagnostic purposes

Examples of questionnaires/structured interviews

Example: child symptom inventory --> Parent, teacher, and self-versions

Example: Dominique/Dominic --> child is shown vignette of symptoms (Dominique gets upset easily, do you?), child then answers if they are like him/her

-- Good instrument that produces good valid scores for internalizing and externalizing problems

Positives and negatives of clinical interviews

Positives (+): rich data, insights into individual differences, flexibility; Often useful with young children

Negative (-): time-consuming, not standard, hard to compare (however, many new clinical interviews are time-efficient and highly standardized)

Example: Dominic interview for children

New clinical interviews are?

efficient and highly standardized.

Narratives

def: a hybrid between observations and clinical interviews

-- they help combat the negatives of clinical interviews because kids can enact their thoughts and feeling

-- Dominic Interview is a version of that.

-- typically use these once children hit the age of 3

Narrative example

Child is given props and a story

-- story says the prop child isn't supposed to eat the hot soup but does, the child in the study is then asked what happens next --> does the parent discipline the child or does the parent care for the child?

-- this can give information on attachment perspectives

Naturalistic observation: positives and negatives

Positives (+): ecologically valid, “real” behaviors, rich data

-- Can sit in a playground or classroom and watch what occurs

Negatives (-): few rare behaviors seen

-- Examples: misbehavior, harsher parenting, empathy, etc.

Example: observing a child’s “free-flowing” behavior in classroom

Structured observation: positives and negatives

Positives (+):

-- Ecologically valid “real” behaviors, rich data

-- way to see more rare behaviors

-- Standardized environments that allow for comparisons across participants (e.g., snack, play, mishap)

-- Targeted behaviors can be elicited and seen

---- Give child a toy that will break --> child is lead to believe they broke the special object --> we can observe guilt

Negatives (-): older children’s behavior may be altered

Example: observing mother and child in standard contexts in lab or home

What is a problem with observations?

In the past, observations used to create difficulties with reliable coding --> those have now been remedied by modern videotaping techniques and a whole new science of reliability

Examples of biological measures

Molecular genetic measures (e.g., 5-HTTLPR polymorphism, gene associated with the serotonergic system)

Psychophysiological measures (skin conductance, heart rate)

Brain imaging measures (structural)

Brain activity measures (functional)

Neurotransmitters

Hormones

"Astronaut Training" --> Assessment of Electrodermal Reactivity.

EEG

Cortisol collection

Cheek swab (for genetic analyses)

What is the gold standard for research?

a multi-method approach that heavily favors observation, complemented by biological measures and reports.

What is a cross-sectional design and its benefits/cost?

def: collect data from children of different ages (e.g., observe 4-year-olds, 6-year-olds, 8-year-olds, 10-year-olds, 12-year-olds)

Positives (+): quick (in principle, could be done in one day), cheap

Negative (-): provide no data on the development of individual children

-- Can’t answer the question: can you predict the future from the past

Example: want to measure how memory changes over time

What is a longitudinal designs? benefits/cost

collect data from the same children repeatedly over time (e.g., observe at age 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12)

Positives (+): provide data on the development of individual children, their trajectories over time

Negatives (-): take “real time” (for example, from age 4 to 12 --> 8 years), very expensive

ex: examining a child from 7 months to 12 years old

Cross-sectional/longitudinal design

collect data from different cohorts repeatedly over time (e.g., recruit 4-, 6- and 8-year old's, and observe every 2 years for 4 years - at 6, 8, and 10, and at 8, 10, and 12): combine advantages of both

How studies are designed: Are variables controlled and manipulated; is a random assignment used?

NO: correlational designs

YES: experimental designs

correlational design

variables are not controlled or manipulated and random assignment is not used

experimental designs

variables are controlled and manipulated, random assignment is used.

Major theories of approaches to development

(1) PSYCHOANALYTIC (FREUD, ERIKSON)

(2) LEARNING (WATSON, SKINNER, BANDURA)

(3) COGNITIVE (PIAGET)

(4) BIOLOGICAL (ETHOLOGY, BEHAVIOR GENETICS, TEMPERAMENT)

(5) ECOLOGICAL (BRONFENBRENNER, BELSKY)

What were two things that freud's psychoanalytic theory were not?

not based on empirical data and not based on experiments. he used his clinical work.

Freud's Theory was

a comprehensive metaphor or model of personality development that grew out of Freud's clinical work with individual patients, based mostly on the analysis of free associations, dreams, slips of tongue, and other unconscious behaviors (defense mechanisms)

What were the driving forces of personality according to Freud

Two powerful biological instincts

-- eros & thanatos

the role of socialization

Eros

means life

-- the positive life staining factors like eating, sex, respiration, bodily needs

Thanatos

means death

-- destructive behavior like aggression, masochism

what is the role of socialization in personality for Freud?

to harness, control, and channel the basic biological instincts of eros and thanatos.

Because of a clash of biology and culture....

a complex personality system emerges in the course of development.

What are the 3 personalities?

id (basic) ego(median) superego(max)

Three pirnciples

perfection principle

reality principle

pleasure principle

what principle is Id?

pleasure principle: passion, instincts, emotions, wants

-- seeks immediate gratification

-- impulsive

-- primary, inborn, unconscious

what principle is ego?

the reality principle: seeks realistic and acceptable ways to easily satisfy the Id (delaying, planning, modifying impulse)

-- deliberate, conscious, rational

-- ex: having to drive to grocery store for food

what principle is super ego?

perfection principle: internal censor; conscience

-- ought not, should not

-- judgement

-- internalized standards, guilt

Major driving force of personality development according to Freud

conflicts between biological needs (Id), and society's dictates

How many stages does Freud's psychosexual development have?

5

-- stages depends on where in the body psychosexual energy focuses

What are the 5 stages of the psychosexual development model? stage/age

0-1 the oral stage

1-3 the anal stage

3-6 the phallic stage

6-12 the latency stage

12+ the genital stage

Oral stage

0-1

-- seek satisfaction

-- babies explore their world with their mouth

anal stage

1-3

-- first stage of conflict with parents because they want to start controlling themselves. ex: bathroom habits (potty training)

-- first sign of expectations (you will control your behavior)

phallic stage

3-6

-- where superego is created

-- Battle with sexual desire with parents and then realizes their place in the family.

A boy's sexual desires focuses on

the mother --> hostility toward the father --> increase anxiety --> repression of the desire, identification with the father, adoption of his values, emulating father (superego)

Latency stage

6-12

-- child has conscious super ego.

genital stage

12+

-- sexuality and other sexual feelings emerge

What happens if these needs aren't met at each stage?

fixation and other defense mechanisms

-- lack of defense mechanism

-- what happens in these stages affect us later.

Defense mechanisms

Strategies the mind adopts actively to deal with anxiety, tension, threatening or unacceptable thoughts and emotions. The mind plays an active role in coping, rather just passively reflect reality

What are the 5 defense mechanisms?

repression, projection, denial, rationalization, regression, reaction formation, sublimation

all driven by unconscious force

Repression

remove threatening thoughts from awareness

Projection

attribute unacceptable impulses to others

Denial

refuse to recognize a threatening situation or thought

Rationalization

give a "reasonable" explanation for an event

regression

return to a less mature behavior

reaction formation

express the very opposite of disturbing ideas

sublimation

channeling unacceptable impulse to socially acceptable outlets

does the mind take an active or passive role in coping?

takes an active role in coping rather than just passively reflecting reality.

Genius of Freud

Showed us the child we had not known; revolutionized our thinking about human nature and psychological functioning

Showed us that things may not be what they seem, and that one may have to go beyond the obvious

Proposed the first system approach to personality and its development

Was the first to emphasize the power of affect

Was the first to underscore the importance and complexity of early affective experience

Proposed the existence and importance of the unconscious processes; showed how the mind actively copes with anxiety -- does not simply reflect, but transforms internal and external world

Inspired many followers in psychology and the humanities

Was the first to emphasize that early relationships are critically important and are carried forward

Proposed the first theory of conscience; stressed guilt and fear as key affects

Finally, generated a wonderfully interesting and exciting metaphor of development and psychological functioning

But: a lot of problems … the methods not objective, mostly case studies, retrospective reports. Difficult to verify empirically; when empirical research was attempted, it usually failed to support the theory

Freud vs Erikson: Nature of child

Freud: evil; original sin; "seething cauldron"; driven by the unconscious

Erikson: good; rational adaptive

Freud vs Erikson: Driving Force of Development

Freud: nature/culture clash

Nature and its conflict with nurture

Erikson: nurture; culture and developmentally changing psychosocial tasks

Freud vs Erikson: Child's role in development

Freud: passive recipient

Erikson: active explorer

Freud vs Erikson: Course of Development

Freud: 5 stages (psychosexual)

Erikson: 8 stages (psychosocial crises)

Freud vs. Erikson on future prediction

Freud: yes (e.g., fixation at an earlier stage; mother-child relationship is a prototype of future love relationships)

Erikson: yes (if a crisis is not resolved successfully, it has lasting consequences for development)

Freud vs Erikson: Important agents

Freud believed parents were while Erikson believed in multiple agents of socialization (parents, peers, teachers, friends, lovers, spouses)

Freud vs Erikson: developmental scenario

Freud was 0 to adolescence while Erikson was our entire life span.

According to erikson, what did each crisis have?

Is tied to developmentally changing important life tasks

Has a potential for adaptation/growth or maladaptation/failure

Sets the stage for future development

Centers around different significant events, social influences, agents

Erikson's view

completely consistent with contemporary developmental psychopathology

what are the 8 crisis for Erikson?

basic trust vs mistrust

autonomy vs shame and doubt

initiative vs guilt

industry vs inferiority

identity vs role confusion (identity diffusion)

intimacy vs isolation

generativity vs stagnation

ego integrity vs despair

Basic Trust vs Mistrust

age 0-1

-- learning to trust our parental figures

autonomy vs shame and doubt

1-3

-- whether or not we have to ask to do things

initiative vs guilt

3-6

-- try different things; different family roles

-- am i good or bad child?

industry vs inferiority

6-12

-- am i successful or inferior to my peers

-- concerned with roles outside of the home

identity vs role confusion

adolescence

-- who am i?

intimacy vs isolation

young adulthood

-- sharing my life with another person or stay alone --> marriage or friendship

generativity vs stagnation

middle adulthood

-- how am i doing in all my roles?

-- how do I feel about my roles?

ego integrity vs despair

old age

-- reflect on their lives. do I have any regrets. feeling useful still.

Appraisal of Erikson's Theory

Important shift from unconscious sexuality to rationality

Child: not a passive recipient of socialization, but an active explorer in life’s journey

Development not ending in adolescence; stretching over the life span

A compelling notion of developmental tasks that have a potential for both strength and vulnerability

Rich social context of human life stressed, including many social niches beyond Freudian bedroom and bathroom

Continued a systematic approach: earlier stages incorporated in later stages

The importance of the quest for individual identity

Intuitively appealing

BUT:

-- Uncontrolled, non-objective methods

-- Vague as to the specific mechanisms of the developmental transitions

Who was a part of the learning approach for development

Watson, Sinner, Bandura

learning

change in behavior

1. The child thinks, perceives, reacts in a new way

2. This change results from experience (not maturation, heredity, injury)

3. This change is relatively permanent

what are the processes of learning and who did them?

1. Repetition Watson

2. Classical conditioning (new response acquired via association of a neutral stimulus with one that already elicits the response) Watson

3. Operant conditioning (freely emitted response reinforced by its consequences) Skinner

4. Observational learning Bandura

Watson Learning Model

radical behaviorism in the 20s

-- child is shaped by parent environment

-- repetition and classical conditioning.

Skinner Learning Model

50-60s

operant conditioning

positive and negative reinforcers

Bandura Learning Model

70s and current

cognitive social learning

most important: observational learning (modeling and imitation)

emphasis on cognitive learning

what does bandura's cognitive social learning theory say about children and their learning?

children are active and thinking contributors to their own learning

-- they choose to which models to attend and what to imitate

bandura cognitive social learning theory: how are new behaviors acquired?

Although classical and operant conditioning do take place, they are incredibly inefficient ways of learning.

Watching and imitating models: Much more efficient

-- cognitive social learning, vicarious reinforcement

Cognitive social learning

Child can learn without ever having performed an act, simply by watching models (child attends, encodes, stores information)

vicarious reinforcement

Child does not need personally to experience reinforcements - it's enough to see consequences of acts for the model

Bandura believes that children can learn..

children can learn without ever having performed an act, simply by watching models

imporant reinforcements for Banduras cognitive social learning theory

self generated good feelings, mostly feelings of self efficacy.

Learning theory: Appraisal - positives

Very precise, testable hypotheses

Explains a substantial proportion of how new behavior is acquired and maintained (for example, aggression)

Useful clinical applications (therapies, behavior modification); instrument of social change (Bandura's TV work in Africa)

Bandura: the move to the level of cognitive representation was quite revolutionary