Unit 3: Development and Learning

Nature vs. Nurture

Genetic inheritance (nature) vs. environmental influence (nurture).

Stability vs. Change

Do traits persist or do they change over time?

Continuity vs. Stages

Is development gradual or in clear-cut stages?

Longitudinal Research

Follows the same individuals over time to observe changes.

Cross-Sectional Research

Compares people of different ages at a single point in time.

Teratogen

Any harmful agent (e.g., alcohol, drugs) that affects prenatal development.

Fine-Motor Coordination

Small muscle movements (e.g., grasping, writing).

Gross-Motor Coordination

Large movements (e.g., crawling, walking).

Critical Period

Time when certain development must occur (e.g., language, vision).

Sensitive Period

Optimal time for certain abilities to develop, but not rigid.

Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)

0–2 years; experience world through senses; object permanence develops.

Preoperational Stage (Piaget)

2–7 years; egocentric, symbolic thinking, lacks conservation.

Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)

7–11 years; logical thinking about concrete events, conservation mastered.

Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)

12+ years; abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Zone of Proximal Development

What a learner can do with help; Vygotsky’s theory.

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge; increases with age.

Fluid Intelligence

Quick problem solving; declines with age.

Phonemes

Smallest sound units (e.g., "ch", "b").

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning (e.g., "un-", "-ing").

Semantics

Meaning of words and phrases.

Grammar

Set of language rules including syntax and semantics.

Syntax

Rules for combining words into grammatically correct sentences.

Overgeneralization

Applying grammar rules too broadly (e.g., "goed" instead of "went").

Authoritarian Parenting

Strict, high control, low warmth.

Authoritative Parenting

Firm but loving; high control and high warmth.

Permissive Parenting

Lenient, little discipline, high warmth.

Secure Attachment

Comfortable with intimacy; trust caregiver.

Avoidant Attachment

Emotionally distant, avoids closeness.

Anxious Attachment

Clingy, fear of abandonment.

Disorganized Attachment

Inconsistent behavior, often linked to trauma.

Parallel Play

Children play side-by-side without interacting.

Imaginary Audience

Belief that everyone is watching/judging you.

Personal Fable

Belief that your experiences are unique or invincible.

Social Clock

Culturally preferred timing of life events (e.g., marriage).

Identity Achievement

Explored options and made a commitment.

Identity Diffusion

No exploration or commitment.

Identity Foreclosure

Committed without exploring options.

Identity Moratorium

Exploring, but no commitment yet.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Triggers a natural response (e.g., food).

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Natural reaction to UCS (e.g., salivating).

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Stimulus that does not trigger a response before conditioning.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Was neutral, now triggers a response after conditioning.

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

CR fades when CS is no longer paired with UCS.

Spontaneous Recovery

CR reappears after a pause.

Stimulus Generalization

Similar stimuli produce the same response.

Stimulus Discrimination

Only specific stimuli trigger the response.

Positive Reinforcement

Add a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Remove an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Positive Punishment

Add an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

Negative Punishment

Remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

Learned Helplessness

Belief that actions have no effect; leads to passivity.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reward given every time behavior occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

Behavior reinforced only sometimes.

Fixed Ratio

Reinforced after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio

Reinforced after unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed Interval

Reinforced after a set amount of time.

Variable Interval

Reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning through observing others' consequences.

Insight Learning

Sudden realization of a problem’s solution.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but isn’t demonstrated until needed.