Aviation Navigation

Navigation

Air navigation is piloting an aircraft from one geographic position to another while monitoring position progress.

Cross-country planning

Requires plotting course on chart, selecting checkpoints, measuring distances, getting weather info, computing flight time, headings, and fuel requirements.

Methods of navigation

Pilotage (landmarks), Dead Reckoning (direction/distance/time), Radio Navigation (aids like VOR, NDB, GPS).

Aeronautical chart

Road map for pilots; track position and enhance safety.

VFR Chart types

Sectional (1:500,000), Terminal Area (1:250,000), World Aeronautical (1:1,000,000).

Sectional chart

Most used for VFR; 1 inch = 8 statute miles/6.86 NM; includes airport, navaids, airspace, topography, legend.

Terminal Area chart

Scale 1:250,000; detailed for class B; 1 inch = 4 SM/3.43 NM.

World Aeronautical chart

1:1,000,000 scale; 1 inch = 16 SM/13.7 NM; broad area coverage.

Latitude

Lines east-west, measure distance N/S from equator.

Longitude

Lines north-south, measure distance E/W from Prime Meridian.

Time zone

Each 15° longitude = 1 hour; Eastern, Central, Mountain, Pacific in U.S.

UTC/Zulu time

Aviation standard time, based on 0° longitude (Greenwich, England).

Local to UTC

Eastern +5, Central +6, Mountain +7, Pacific +8; subtract 1 if daylight saving.

True Course (TC)

Direction of intended flight, degrees clockwise from true north.

True Heading (TH)

Direction nose points during flight, measured from true north.

Course

The line intended to be flown over the ground.

Heading

Aircraft’s nose direction during flight.

Track

Actual path made over ground.

Drift angle

Angle between heading and track over ground.

Wind Correction Angle (WCA)

Correction applied to maintain desired track.

Magnetic Variation

Angle between true and magnetic north; east is least (subtract), west is best (add).

Compass Deviation

Error caused by magnetic influence in the aircraft.

Magnetic north

Where compass needle points; not same as true north.

Magnetic heading (MH)

TH corrected for magnetic variation.

Compass heading (CH)

MH corrected for deviation in aircraft.

Basic Time formula

T = D ÷ GS (Time = Distance ÷ Groundspeed)

Basic Distance formula

D = GS×T (Distance = Groundspeed × Time)

Basic Groundspeed formula

GS = D ÷ T (Groundspeed = Distance ÷ Time)

Knot

One nautical mile per hour (1.15 statute miles per hour).

Nautical mile

6,076 feet (~1.15 SM).

Fuel calculations

Estimate gallons per hour × flight time = fuel needed, add reserves.

Flight computer

E6B or electronic calculator for time/speed/fuel/navigation.

Plotter

Protractor/ruler used to measure course/distance on charts.

Pilotage

Navigation by visible and identifiable landmarks/checkpoints.

Dead reckoning

Nav by computations based on direction, time, airspeed, and distance.

Wind triangle

Graphic for figuring wind effect on flight; determines heading/GS/time.

Wind effect (no correction)

Airspeed not affected by air motion, but track/GS are.

Groundspeed VS Airspeed

GS changes with headwind/tailwind; airspeed does not.

Flight planning

Check weather, NOTAMs, charts, Chart Supplement, AFM/POH, ensure proper loading and calculations.

Flight log

Plan and space for checkpoints, headings, distances, times, fuel calculations.

VFR flight plan

Not required but recommended for search & rescue; file by phone, open with FSS after takeoff.

Filing a flight plan

Includes aircraft, route, fuel, people, schedule, alternates; close plan after arrival.

Cruising altitude

Above 3,000' AGL: fly odd thousands east, even thousands west, plus 500'.

VOR (VHF Omni Range)

Magnetic bearing info; radial out from station; Terminal/Low/High classes.

VOR frequency

VHF, 108.0–117.95 MHz; line-of-sight.

VOR accuracy

Within ±1°; test with VOT, ground/air checkpoints, dual unit check.

Tracking to/from VOR

Tune, ID, set course, fly to center CDI needle, correct for drift.

CDI

Needle deflects if off course; center needle = on course.

TO/FROM indication

Show direction related to VOR station and selected radial.

HSI/Horizontal Situation Indicator

Combines compass, nav, glideslope; provides heading + lateral guidance.

RMI/Radio Magnetic Indicator

Gyro compass + bearings to navaid/waypoint; points needle at station/course.

Intercepting course

Adjust heading to re-intercept VOR radial, usually at an angle.

DME

Distance from VOR, based on slant range; needs VOR/DME or VORTAC.

Area Navigation (RNAV)

VOR/DME-based direct routing; user-defined waypoints (radial+distance).

ADF/Automatic Direction Finder

Points to NDB station on dial; can use commercial AM broadcasts in some cases.

NDB classes

Locator (<25W), MH (<50W, 25 NM), H (50–1999W, 50 NM), HH (2000+W, 75 NM).

ADF limitations

LF susceptible to electrical/static noise, thunderstorms; pilot must understand.

ADF homing

Hold needle at zero, adjust heading to maintain; wind causes curved, not straight, path to station.

ADF tracking

Set wind correction, maintain straight track, note drift on dial, fly correction to offset.

GPS (Global Positioning System)

Satellite navigation; provides global position/direction; always cross-check with other nav.

RAIM

Checks GPS integrity, ensures signal quality and alerts to untrustworthy nav fixes.

Preflight calculations

Fuel, time, headings, wind corrections, alternates, NOTAMs, weather, loading—all must be computed before flight.

Ground-based radio navigation

VOR, DME, ADF/NDB; always mix with pilotage and dead reckoning for safety.

Airspace review

Check for special use, restricted, controlled airspace along/near route; note altitudes and ops requirements.

Flight hazards

Terrain elevation, towers, obstructions must be checked; avoid low vis or weather hazards.

NOTAMs

Checked preflight for latest updates to airports/routes/obstructions.

Chart Supplement

Reference for frequencies, runway info, services, NOTAMs, diagrams.

Weight and balance

Verify weights for aircraft, fuel, baggage, people; ensure CG within limits; obtain from latest AFM/POH.

Climb/cruise performance

AFM/POH provides performance/fuel data for current loading and planned altitude.

Enroute correction

Monitor time/distances, recalculate/fix heading, GS, fuel at each checkpoint.

Lost procedures

If lost, maintain heading, climb if safe for greater visibility/radio, contact ATC, use nav aids to fix position.

Checkpoints

Known landmarks at intervals; verify position on map, adjust as necessary.

Sectional update

Use chart bulletins and Sectional Chart Bulletin for most recent changes.

Reserve fuel

Add extra fuel for emergencies, unexpected detours/delays.

Postflight

Base fuel/time/calcs on real figures for future planning improvement.

Dead reckoning tips

Always cross-check with visible landmarks and update time estimates at every leg.

Manual flight log usage

Instructor recommends physical log worksheet for every cross-country; helps catch errors before flight.

Class-specific scenario

Instructor included local practice scenario using Tuskegee area airports as checkpoints, not found in PHAK.

Obstacle awareness

Spot out new cell towers, wind turbines, or temporary structures—often not on charts and covered in local briefing, rarely emphasized by FAA book.

Airspace quiz example

Instructor walked through airspace identification on sectional around Tuskegee, detailing floor/ceiling differences and local use patterns. (Not covered in national syllabus)

Local NOTAMs emphasis

Class spent time on how to check local NOTAMs for temporary flight restrictions, sporting events, VIP movements, power line work.

Radar advisory procedures

Review of talking to Montgomery Approach/Columbus Approach, phraseology, and frequency pairing for VFR flight following.

Paper chart annotation

Instructor recommended marking altitudes for MEFs, and adding penciled “danger ticks” for nearby obstacles.

Tuskegee practice

Use Moton Field, Shorter, Auburn as training checkpoints, with focus on identifying local features unfamiliar to book examples.

Runway orientation

signs at Moton Field explained, including how to interpret orientation when chart and signage differ due to construction—class detail only.

Class E Surface extension

Practice on finding Class E extensions and differences between dashed magenta and solid magenta lines.

Frequency management

Protocol for using CTAF/UNICOM at untowered fields near Tuskegee and when to switch to nearest FSS or Flight Watch for weather.

Instructor hint

Take photo of preflight sectional with phone for backup navigation, reduce risk in event of lost chart or iPad.

Local lost procedures

Instructor details: Climb to 3000 AGL, circle clear of obstacles, use VOR or call local ATC once visual reference is lost east of Moton.

Logbook tip

Always record detailed checkpoint times on cross-country; helps reconstruct flight and debrief with instructor, not emphasized in PHAK.

Cross-country flight

Differs from local flights; requires thorough preflight planning, cruise performance, fuel, and weather computation.

Flight planning variables

Cruise performance, time en route, fuel required, plus daily changes in temperature, pressure, and winds aloft.

Fundamental skills

Learn hand calculation for all trip planning elements before relying on apps/software.

Dead reckoning

Plot course, prepare navigation log, factor wind speed/direction, compute heading, time en route, fuel required.

Pilotage

Select and visually identify landmarks (roads, lakes, towns, rivers) enroute to destination.

Trip example

Clermont County → Fayette County → Richmond → Clermont County total 163 NM; plot using chart and plotter.

Distance measurement

Use plotter, read nautical miles on airport-to-airport course lines.

True course

Direction between points measured clockwise from true north on meridian, using plotter protractor.

Course measurements

Clermont to Fayette True Course: 51°, Fayette to Richmond: 280°, Richmond to Clermont: 145°.

Long course tip

Measure course angle near middle of route if crossing many meridians (because of convergence).