Bio Final one big flashcards

Dorsal

Refers to the back of an organism

ex- dorsal fin on the back of a whale

Ventral

Opposite of dorsal

refers to the front/chest area of an organism

Anterior

Refers to the head of an animal

Posterior

Refers to the butt of an organism

Lateral

Refers to the sides of an organism

Median

Refers to the middle of an organism

Mouth

Designed specifically to aid the body with the mechanical and chemical digestion of food. It does this by use of the teeth, salivary glands, and hard and soft pallates

Salivary Glands

Produce saliva and enzymes (that include Amylase) and adds water to the mouth. It’s fluids can be reused when saliva is swallowed.

Amylase

An enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of starch (amylose)

Present in saliva and aids in the chemical digestion of starches

Hard and soft pallate

Helps determine what we should and shouldn’t eat

Hard pallate is located in the front top of the mouth

Soft pallate is located in the back top of the mouth

The soft palate makes up the posterior third of the palate and is a posterior continuation of the hard palate. The soft palate consists of muscle fibers and connective tissue

The hard palate, which composes two-thirds of the total palate area, is a plate of bone covered by a moist, durable layer of mucous-membrane tissue

Digestive System

Closed sytem

Food particles travel all the way through it

Acts as a long tube

Excretory system

The purpose of this system is to remove toxins

Pharynx

The connection between the mouth and nose

The reason why some people are mouth breeders

Can cause fluids to come out of your nose when you laugh

Nasopharynx

The space posterior to the nasal cavities and soft pallate

contiguous with the Oropharynx

Oropharynx

Throat

Space posterior to the mouth

Posterior extension of the Nasopharynx

Esophogus

Long tube made out of smooth muscle

It’s porcess of peristalsis pushes food through the digestive system, making it so you could technically eat upside down

No digestion takes place inside of it

Can be found in dissection by reaching down the mount with a blunt probe

Located behind the trachea

Liver

Located right below the ribcage

One of the two organs in the body that can regenerate

helps to detoxify our blood, making it part of the circulatory system as drugs brought into the bloodstream have to be detoxified by the liver

Serosis can occur when too high a consumption of alchohol over a lifespan causes this organ to stop working

Produces a ton of enzymes (such as alchohol dehydrogenase) that aid the digestive system to break down things into simple parts for the body to use

Produces the digestive fluid Bile

Important for chemical digestion

Involved in excretion, digestion, and circulation

Presence of processed foods cause trouble in the organ

Bile

\
Digestive fluid produced in liver and stored in the gallbladder that helps to break down lipids

Gallbladder

Injects Bile through the duodenum giving it a green cover. This organ is located on the right side of the liver and looks like a little green pouch

Cardiac Sphincter

Connects the stomach to the esophogus

Located next to the heart

Inflamation of this results in what is known as heartbearn

Pyloric Sphincter

located between the stomach and the small intestine, specifically at the junction of the stomach's pylorus and the duodenum. It regulates the flow of partially digested food from the stomach into the small intestine

Stomach

Found right behind the ribs on the left side of the body

Has a two way sphincter system

Has a Ph between 1-2 which allows it to de-nature food using enzymes and hydrochloric acid

Breaks down protein by using pepsin

Designed in a special way to make sure it does not digest itself

Has a mucus lining that could break down and cause ulcers

Like a washing machine that churns food around

Pepsin

Enzyme in the stomach that breaks down peptide bonds

Aids in the chemical digestion of protein

Pancreas

An organ and gland

Produces insulin which regulates glucos level in the bloodstream

It’s insulin level can be properly maintained with a healthy diet

Part of digestive and endocrine systems

Chemical digestion only

Exocrine Glands

Glands that inject hormones directly through a duct

Endocrine Glands

Glands that inject hormones directly into the blood

Insulin Insensitivity

When cells can’t respond to insulin, causing type 2 diabetes to occur.

Doudenum

First part of the small intestine

Small intestine

About 21 feet long

Where a majority of chemical digestion and absorption takes place

No mechanical digestion occurs, only chemical

Everything is broken down in the small intestine

Contains microvilli which aid in the absorption of nutriets

Microvilli

Increase the surface area of the walls of the small intestine and contain blood vessels and capilaries that absorb nutrients

Large Intestine(Colon)

Produces vitamin K with bacteria

Where water from food is absorbed

The last stop in the digestive system to pull stuff out of food

About 8 feet long

Includes the ascending(right) transverse, and descending colon(leads to the rectum)

Has a green color due to the reabsorption of bile

Rectum

storage organ for feces until eliminated through the anus

Bladder

Stores urine

Kidney

Filters the blood to removes excess water and nitrogenous waste

Removes urea from urine, which is un-needed as it contains excess nitrogen

Removes salts

Uriter

The connection between the kidney and the bladder

Accumulation of calcium salts in the uriter causes the formation of a kidney stone

Absorption processes

\
absorption of drugs take place in stomach

absorption of nutrients take place in the small intestine

absorption of water takes place in the large intestine

Surface area to Volume relationships

High surface area of the microvilli allows food to be digested and absorbed

High surface area of alveoli allows for more gas exchange along the capillaries

Excretory organs

\
bladder: right under umbilical flap of pig(excretes urine)

skin: excrete sweat and boils

lungs: excrete H2O and CO2

Kidney: excrete excess water and nitrogenous waste

Liver: excrete any of the toxins that we need to get out of our body

Atria

The two upper chambers of the heart that receive and store blood from the veins and pump it into the ventricles. They are responsible for the contraction that fills the ventricles with blood.

Right ventricle

Passes blood into the pulmonary arteries

Left ventricle

Located on the biggest side of the heart and pumps blood to the whole body

Septum

Separation between left and right side of the heart

Heart valves

Structures within the heart that regulate blood flow by opening and closing in response to pressure changes. There are four valves in the heart: the tricuspid valve, pulmonary valve, mitral valve, and aortic valve. These valves ensure that blood flows in the correct direction through the heart and prevent backflow. Dysfunction of heart valves can lead to various cardiovascular diseases.

SA Node(pacemaker)

Sends an electric signal to the heart telling it to speed up or slow down

Like a band conducter for the heart

Aorta

Biggest artery in the whole body

Pumps oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body

The blood pumped out by the aorta exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide and the system cardiovascular restarts itself

Superior Vena Cava

On the top of the right side of the heart

Brings in de-oxygenated blood down from areas above the heart

Inferior Vena Cava

Bottom left of heart

Brings in blood coming from the feet/bottom of the body

Arteries

Push blood away from heart

Pulmonary arteries

Only arteries that carry de-oxygenated blood

Push blood from the heart to the lungs

Veins

Carry blood to the heart

Pulmonary Veins

Only veins that carry oxygenated blood

Carry blood from lungs to the heart

Capilaries

so thin that blood cells can go through one at a time

exchange of nutrients and waste between arteries and veins

1

Superior Vena Cava

2

Inferior Vena Cava

3

right atrium

5

right ventricle

7

pulmonary artery

8

pulmonary vein

9

Left atrium

11

Left Ventricle

13

Aorta

Diastolic Pressure (80mmHg)

Heart pressure when the heart is relaxing

Systolic Pressure

\
when your heart is beating

higher pressure when heart contracts more

high pressure can be alleviated with diet and exercise

Red blood cells function

Main function is to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide

White Blood Cell Function

Fighting infection

Platelets

Used to help form blood clots to slow or stop bleeding and to help wounds heal.

Trachea(windpipe)

Branches down into the lungs

cartilaginous springs can be felt from under the larynx

Larynx(voicebox)

adams apple

sound gets transferred through when mouth is opened

Epiglottis

Tissue that covers up the windpipe to prevent choking on food

Bronchi

Branch off of the tree trunk to the lungs

Bronchioles

Brach off of left and right bronchi and carry oxygen through the lungs

Alveoli

The little air sacs at the end of bronchioli

Diaphragm

Tissue above liver

contracts during inspiration and relaxing during expiration

Axial skeleton

Looking at the skelton from head to tailbone, not related to appendages

Appendicual skeleton

related to appendages (arms, legs, shoulders)

Skeletal muscle

Muscle we usually eat

Any muscle involved in moving the skeleton

Voluntary muscles that the brain

Smooth muscle

Makes up most organs and glands

Involuntary

Cardiac Muscle

Involuntary muscle

Only covers the walls of the heart

Cartilidge

Protects the bones from grinding against eachother

Ball and Socket Joint

Found in shoulders and hips

Form allows for it to be rotated all around

Hinge joints

Simmilar to a door hinge

Found in knee and elbow, allowing for it to move up and down

Pivot joints

Ex- neck

Allows movement from side to side

Saddle joints

Found in carpal bones and trapezium

help with grasps and allow the hands to be dexterious

endocytosis

when a cell takes in an external substance through the cell membrane by creating vesicles (sacks) to “hug” it in

exocytosis

to get rid of macromolecules that are too big for the cell, it releases macromolecules by fusing the vesicle with the plasma membrane

large cell size makes it…

hard to move nutrients into the cell

cells function best when

there is a larger surface area to volume ratio

small cell size makes it…

easy to absorb nutrients and excrete waste

unicellular organisms…

reproduce/clone asexually via cell division

multicellular organisms…

use cell division to grow and develop, and repair and renew cells once fully grown

interphase

when a cell grows and copies its DNA in prep for mitosis--90% of the cell cycle happens here

G1 phase “first gap”

cell growth and protein synthesis

S phase (synthesis)

dna replicated

G1/S Checkpoint

if cell does not pass cell cycle stops completely

Cell goes into senescence

G2 phase“second gap”

growth, protein synthesis, and organelle development

mitosis

division of nucleus, then division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis)

G2/M checkpoint

if cell does not pass, cycle stops to prepare DNA

G0 (senescence)

cell retirement home, waiting to die

apoptosis

cellular suicide…cell is damaged/gets signal proteins, shrinks, proteins help break down cell components, enzymes break down nucleus, cell parts removed from the body

in plant cells, vesicles form…

a cell plate