Anarchism A level Politics

What are the key themes in anarchism?

1) Opposition to the state - anarchists view it as an unnecessary evil

2) However, anarchists are not opposed to all forms of social organisation - many believe that a 'spontaneous order' will arise once the state is abolished

3) Anti-authoritarian - rejection of the legitimate power of states and other authority institutions like churches and schools, which limit freedom and autonomy

4) Atheism/anti-clericalism - opposing the supposed authority of God/the church

What are the five types of anarchism?

Egoism (individualist)

Anarcho-capitalism (individualist)

Mutualism (somewhere in between)

Anarcho-syndicalism (collectivist)

Anarcho-communism (collectivist)

Name the five key thinkers and the type of anarchism that each subscribes to

Max Stirner - egoist

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon - mutualist

Mikhail Bakunin - anarcho-communist

Peter Kropotkin - anarcho-communist

Emma Goldman - anarcho-feminist (collectivist too)

What are some characteristics of a state (a set of institutions that governs a territory, comprising of executive, judicial and legislative branches)?

1) Sovereign - ultimate power within territory

2) Compulsory - no right to "opt out" of obeying law, paying taxes etc.

3) Monopolistic - claims a monopoly of legitimate force, implementation of justice, issuing currency etc.

4) Distinct - clear distinction between state and civil society

On what grounds do anarchists reject the state?

1) Coercive - the state denies freedom and autonomy: William Godwin wrote that "Government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of the original mind"

2) Punitive - inflicts punishment i.e. harm on those who act against its dictates, often for reasons of retribution against them:

Emma Goldman - government is characterised by "the club, the gun, the handcuff or the prison"

3) Exploitative - taxation is seen as theft and those who work for the state enrich themselves and/or fund projects using money forcibly taken from others:

Anarcho-capitalists in particular argue for absolute property rights which they believe are compromised by the state

4) Hierarchical - the state entrenches inequality between the 'rulers' and the 'ruled':

Collectivist anarchists argue that most states enable an unjust capitalist system by defending property rights - for Proudhon 'property is theft' and the state is complicit

5) Destructive - the state is responsible for war and violence:

Randolph Bourne wrote that "war is the health of the state"

What did Emma Goldman famously proclaim about voting?

"If voting changed anything, they'd make it illegal"

On what grounds do anarchists reject 'consent' and social contract theory as justifications for the state?

1) Most states are initially formed as a result of conquest, not a voluntary contract between individuals

2) Most people do not formally consent to be governed by the state they live in, so any consent is at best 'tacit'

3) 'Democratic' elections usually do not include the option to vote against any government at all, so anarchists cannot register discontent

4) Direct democracy in theory removes a distinction between 'rulers' and 'ruled' and is conditionally supported by some anarchists for making decisions in 'self managing' communities

- However, it still allows for tyranny of the majority, which is largely rejected by anarchists

- Enrico Malatesta: "anarchists deny the right of the majority to govern human society in general"

5) Even if emigration from a state is permitted (and it is not always), it is virtually impossible to live outside the governance of some state or other

6) Where actual consent to the state does occur, it is not rational as the state is inherently harmful to individuals (Noam Chomsky believes that state propaganda brainwashes citizens into thinking it benefits them)

On what grounds do anarchists reject the liberal approach of limiting the state's power through a constitution with democratic checks/balances?

- Any form of government is inherently oppressive, evil and unnecessary

- Constitutionalism/elections gives the state a veneer of respectability/legitimacy

- They are thus ways of promoting subservience, and recruiting citizens into their own oppression

What were William Godwin's (1756-1836) views on individuals holding 'legitimate' authority over one another?

- No human being may ever hold legitimate authority over another (i.e. have a moral right to wield power)

- Correspondingly, no one is ever obliged to act simply on the grounds that another person/group commands it

- It is acceptable to recognise another person's expertise (e.g. an elder, teacher, doctor) but not to surrender one's own judgement to them

Why does Godwin view authority as counterproductive?

- It means individuals do not develop autonomy - the capacity to make good judgements themselves

- Like most anarchists, Godwin's view of human nature is optimistic/utopian: he thinks we are basically rational and will learn to make good moral judgements if only given sufficient freedom

How does Max Stirner (egoist) believe individuals will behave once freed from the constraints of the state and other forms of authority?

- Freedom will lead to individuals pursuing their self-interest, rather than ends dictated for them by others

- He argues that any claims about 'objective' ends of action (moral, religious, or political) are illusory and false

- Freedom requires removing the 'thought control' exercised by institutions such as the church and moral codes, as well as the state, so as to allow the 'ego' to express itself

- The only thing it is rational to do is to act self-interestedly, and society should flourish when each individual is permitted and encouraged to do so

How does Peter Kropotkin (anarcho-communist) believe individuals will behave once freed from the constraints of the state and other forms of authority?

- Human beings are naturally social animals, motivated by 'mutual aid' to promote the good of their community

- He bases this on 'scientific' observations of other species of animals who appear to act co-operatively and demonstrate altruistic behaviour (e.g. bees, lizards, hyenas)

- However, the existence of the state and capitalism has denied human beings the opportunity to flourish, motivating us instead to be 'unnaturally' competitive, materialistic and power seeking

- Once these institutions are removed, we will be 'freed' from selfish desires to fulfil our potential as altruistic and sociable beings and live in harmony with others

How do Proudhon and other mutualists believe individuals will behave once freed from the constraints of the state and other forms of authority?

- Proudhon was an opponent of capitalism/private property, but also rejected communism and trade unionism on grounds that they stifle individual choice and independence

- It could be argued that human nature cannot be 'reduced' simply to self-interest, as Stirner claims, or pure altruism as suggested by Kropotkin - motivations are variable and complex

What does Stirner's 'union of egoists' entail?

- People working together to pursue goals which can only be achieved by co-ordinating their efforts (e.g. sports teams)

- In such cases people "care best for their welfare if they unite with others"

What problems might Stirner's 'union of egoists' pose to his egoist model?

- The only kinds of association that can occur are those which mutually benefit all their participants, making any social institution highly unstable according to individualists

- Moreover it seems to rule out any relationships such as friendship, love, or family which entail altruism (i.e. genuine concern for others' interests over self-interest)

Does Stirner's self-interest refer solely to the pursuit of money in a capitalist system?

- No, as working purely for profit/money deadens the ego and individuality of the worker (who becomes 'enslaved' to his own greed)

- His view of self-interest is much broader, and includes intellectual discussion, the arts and even 'love'

(He writes that "I love them with the consciousness of my egoism; I love them because love makes me happy, I love because loving is natural to me, it pleases me")

What did Stirner write about the effects of freedom and egoism?

"Freedom awakens your rage against everything that is not you; egoism calls you to joy over yourselves, to self-enjoyment"

What are some key beliefs of anarcho-capitalists?

- Inalienable rights of individuals over their person, property, territory should be protected

- The requirements of governments e.g. to pay taxes, obey laws, support wars & contribute to policy initiatives are an unacceptable infringement of these liberties

- Henry Thoreau adapted Thomas Jefferson's maxim "That government is best which governs least" to claim "That government is best which governs not at all."

- As a means of achieving this he advocated non-violent civil disobedience such as refusal to pay taxes

Although not strictly anarchists (but strong supporters of capitalism), how do Rand and Nozick believe the state should operate?

- The state should perform a 'nightwatchman' function

- Most goods (e.g. health, education), should be provided privately through a system of market exchange and/or the voluntary sector

Is anarcho-capitalism necessary egoist?

- No, acts of altruism are still possible e.g. giving to charity

- However, a market economy usually operates on the basis of agents pursuing self-interest in their production and consumption activities (e.g. maximum profit, consumer surplus)

Outline some key arguments for anarcho-capitalism

1) Rights to liberty, to earn, to own property etc. are absolute, so any infringement of them is morally wrong

2) Tax and state benefits create disincentives to work - so production would rise under anarcho-capitalism

3) The state reduces individuals' capacity to exercise virtues, e.g. generosity by voluntarily using their own assets for the good of others (voluntary sector would have a bigger role under anarchism)

4) Distributive Justice - the state skews the distribution of income, resources away from hard-working businesses towards state employees who live at taxpayers' expense (e.g. MPs expenses)

5) State production is inefficient as it does not respond to consumers' needs/wishes - consumers do not dictate the market e.g. leading shortages/surplus of certain goods, and there is the possibility of unwanted state projects e.g. Millennium Dome

Outline some key objections to anarcho-capitalism

1) Lack of security/protection: no state to ensure people respect others' personal/property rights or honour market contracts - which anarcho-capitalists think are absolute

Counter: The anarcho-capitalist ideal of provision of private security and courts

2) Free markets lead to large inequalities of income/wealth and therefore power; those unable to 'succeed' end up reliant on others' charity

Counters: (i) inequality promotes incentives to work and rewards industry

(ii) inequality is a natural consequence of freedom i.e. different choices, interests and talents

3) Anarcho-capitalism is undemocratic as states result from collective decisions to form them and are supported by most citizens

Counter: imposing a state on those who disagree, just because a majority support it, is 'tyranny of the majority'

4) Market failure: economists suggest that the free market leads to inefficient outcomes in certain cases e.g. externalities such as environmental damage

Counter: extension of property rights could resolve this

Instead of individual rights (as most individualist thought is based around), what value is collectivist anarchism based on?

Social solidarity (and rather than classical liberalism, it is influenced by socialism)

What two things do collectivist anarchists believe have stopped humanity from flourishing?

The oppressive nature of the state and the competitive nature of the market economy

How do collectivists and anarcho-capitalists fundamentally differ on their view of state protection of capitalist institutions?

Collectivists see the state as a mechanism to protect capitalist institutions e.g. property, private wealth, land ownership etc.

Anarcho-capitalists see the state as hindering the market forces

How is Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's anarchism sometimes seen as a 'bridge' between collectivist and individualist anarchism?

It is a compromise between private and collective production; an attempt to balance limited forms of buying/selling with concerns about equality

What three sections is the economy divided into in a mutualism system?

1) Agriculture - individually based production

2) Artisan production - rural crafts - choice between individual and collaborative production

3) Industry - urban manufacturing - worker associations/collectives under loose democratic control (as large scale production is needed for efficiency)

What distinction does Proudhon make between 'possessions' and 'property'?

- It is desirable to have 'possession' i.e. exclusive use of land you work on and the tools/resources required for production

- However, according to Proudhon 'property is theft'

- This means you are not allowed to transfer, bequeath or rent out resources, or employ anyone to work for you - as this leads to inequality and unjust power imbalances

What does Proudhon suggest money should be replaced with?

- A system of 'labour notes'

- Goods may be bought and sold but at a price fixed at number of labour hours taken to produce them

- Interest free credit is available from a 'People's bank' to pay for factors of production (Proudhon personally experimented with setting up not-for-profit banks)

Outline some key objections to Proudhon's mutualism

1) It requires a high degree of trust, as there is no state to police the system. How do we ensure e.g. honouring of contracts, accurate statements of labour hours?

2)The injunctions against transferring resources, selling one's labour etc. seem significantly to diminish individual freedom

3) As hourly pay is the same for any job, workers would gravitate towards 'easier' occupations where work is less arduous

4) The prices of goods do not respond to demand (as in a free market), and there is no overall economic 'plan' (as, for instance, in state communism). How does the system determine what to produce?

What main issue do anarcho-syndicalists take with the state?

- The state is seen as serving the interests of the capitalist class/system, chiefly by protecting property rights of the wealthy (employers, landowners)

- Economic and political 'ruling classes' thus operate hand in hand to exploit the working class

How do anarcho-syndicalists suggest workers respond to the injustices of the capitalist system?

- By forming 'syndicates' (unions) in each area based on craft/industry

- These syndicates are loosely democratically controlled; with 'delegate' leaders elected on a temporary basis

What three federations do syndicates form once they are created?

1) Horizontally (between syndicates in a geographical area)

2) Vertically (between syndicates of the same profession)

3) A confederation (umbrella organisation to which all syndicates are affiliated)

The confederation plans the movement's overall strategy but has no right of command over individual syndicates

What form of action do anarcho-syndicalists support?

Direct action: strikes, sabotage, boycotts, labelling products of good employers

(The longer-term aim is a general strike to bring down the capitalist system)

How is the confederation of syndicates prevented from becoming a state?

- The syndicate system remains a voluntary one following the fall of capitalism, providing the basic framework for organising production

(This system follows the socialist idea of 'need', not 'profit')

What objections are there to anarcho-syndicalism?

1) How are the working class to be recruited to the anarchist cause? Many hold socially conservative/authoritarian views on issues like defence, policing, immigration.

2) There is tension between two aims of the union movement:

(i) Improving working conditions under capitalism

(ii) Removal of capitalist system altogether

(achieving (i) makes (ii) less likely)

3) Once capitalism is overthrown, Sorel says production should be based on 'need rather than profit'

- But it is managed by the same organisations (i.e. unions) that existed under capitalism.

- So how do the unions organise the change to a wholly new pattern of production, rather than just maintaining the existing one?

4) There is a danger of a 'slippery slope': once the confederation starts to organise production it may start to resemble a state and seek to exercise power.

- Some trade unions have been intolerant of dissenters (e.g. intimidation of 'scabs') and tried to compel membership ('closed shops')

Why did Mikhail Bakunin (anarcho-communist) take issue with Marx's idea of 'dictatorship of the proletariat' as an intermediary stage between capitalism and communism?

Bakunin thought DOTP to be as, if not more, repressive than the capitalist state - and argued for an immediate transition to an anarchic form of communism after a workers' revolution

(These views have arguably been vindicated by the experience of the totalitarian USSR, North Korea, Cuba etc.)

What were Mikhail Bakunin's views on the economy?

Bakunin argued for 'collectivisation' of the economy with factors of production owned in common, and distributed based on the Marxist principle (albeit not achieved by means of the state):

'From each according to his ability, to each according to his need'

What sets public ownership apart from state ownership for Bakunin?

- His account of how production is organised suggests a 'federal' style system but with complete freedom for individuals and groups on whether to participate

- This is explained through his belief that "Every individual, every association, every commune, every region, every nation" has "the absolute right to self-determination, to associate or not to associate, to ally themselves with whomever they wish"

What did Bakunin write about the relationship between socialism and liberty (ultimately a critique of Marxism)?

"We are convinced that liberty without socialism is privilege and injustice; and that socialism without liberty is slavery and brutality"

What did Bakunin write about how freedom should be achieved?

"Freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up"

What are some features of the communes that Peter Kropotkin visualises?

- Work is shared between members, land and resources are commonly owned, and money (eventually) abolished

- In place of the nuclear family - 'free love' is encouraged with childcare provided by the whole community

Where does motivation for work come from in an anarcho-communist system, according to Kropotkin?

The natural human tendency for 'mutual aid'

Although Kropotkin states that there is no compulsion to work and no punishments in an anarcho-communist system, what does he say should happen to those who are 'uncooperative'?

'Exclusion' from the community (which he believes is undesirable for the vast majority)

Why is Kropotkin sometimes viewed as an 'eco-anarchist'?

He suggests that living 'close to nature' and relying on local production is environmentally beneficial as well as fulfilling

What are some objections to anarcho-communism?

1) What will motivate work, if neither market incentives nor state compulsion?

Counters: (i) Work is less alienated/more interesting under a different system

(ii) Altruism, working for the 'good of the community' flourishes under communism

(iii) Those who fail to contribute may be excluded and end up as 'hermits'

2) Economic efficiency: the loss of economies of scale and reduction in trade will lead to lower (material) standards of living

Counters: (i) Under capitalism much production is unnecessary and wasteful e.g. retail, advertising, banking - this will be removed

(ii) Communism will bring a changed view of what constitutes welfare - away from 'commodity fetishism'

3) How is production 'based on need' determined with neither a market system nor a state?

Counter: Relies on good sense/co-operative 'round table' discussion within small communities to make such decisions

How do egoists believe order will arise in a stateless society?

- Removal of the state nurtures individualism, rationality and autonomy which are the best guarantors of social order

- Order may be also achieved through Stirner 'unions of egoists', when people recognise they can best serve their own interests by entering into certain voluntary agreements with others

How do anarcho-capitalists believe order will arise in a stateless society?

- Order may be achieved through the operation of market forces and the universal recognition of property rights

- They envisage private security/defence agencies and courts replacing traditional 'law and order' functions of the state (police, military, judiciary) and protecting individuals from each other

How do collective anarchists believe order will arise in a stateless society?

- Collectivist anarchists see order arising naturally in a community of equals - production organised on a voluntary basis by institutions such as trade unions (syndicalism) or communes (communism)

- They believe this can be achieved without the need for sanctions/punishment in the conventional sense - as motivations for antisocial or violent behaviour will be reduced/abolished

- However, Kropotkin argues that those who are still disruptive or uncooperative may be 'excluded' from a community

What are the two meanings of utopia?

1) Good place - an ideal society promoting happiness, fulfilment, perfection of the human being

2) No place - an unachievable ideal, a theoretical model which can never be put into practice

(Anarchism is often seen as both of these)

How may anarchy be seen as a 'good place' utopia?

- Suggests a functioning, harmonious society can exist without the need for a state or authority/hierarchy

- Seeks to maximise political values such as freedom, equality

- Aims to promote virtues of people living under anarchist conditions:

o Rational autonomy (Stirner)

o Sociability and 'mutual aid' (Kropotkin)

How may anarchy be seen as a 'no place' utopia?

- Assumes a naively positive account of human nature

- No plausible method for bringing an anarchist society about

Anarchist society would be:

o Internally unstable/dangerous

o Economically impoverished

o Unable to defend itself from invasion

Why do anarchists almost always reject involvement in 'conventional' politics as a means of removing the state?

- They see this as corrupting: those who engage with the establishment ultimately become identified with it and abandon their principles

- It is also self-contradictory to participate in an institution that you wish to abolish

Why did Emma Goldman (anarcho-feminist) believe that the suffragette movement was misguided?

- Once women win seats in the legislature they become corrupted by authority in the same way as men

- The only way to remove such oppression is to abolish the state and other patriarchal structures including the church, family and private property

How do Proudhon and mutualists believe the state should be abolished?

Oppose violence, support a mix of argument/persuasion and experiments with stateless systems such as worker co-operatives or a 'People's bank' - to show they 'work' as alternatives

(Objection - is this likely to be ineffective?)

How do anarcho-syndicalists believe the state should be abolished?

Support direct actions such as strikes, sabotage, boycotts & eventually a general strike - but stop short of advocating violence

(Objection - doesn't this just create a nuisance? A general strike is very hard to organise)

How do anarcho-communists believe the state should be abolished?

- A violent revolution is inevitable and necessary means to abolish both the state and capitalist system

- Bakunin calls for a campaign of 'propaganda by the deed' involving non-payment of taxes, rents and debts, mass strikes and refusal of conscription - which will ultimately be a catalyst for a spontaneous revolution

- Kropotkin wants a campaign to 'educate' people about the evils of the state, ushering in a revolution - but thinks violence should be targeted at institutions rather than people

(Objection: revolutions can often lead to tyranny. It is paradoxical to advocate violence to create a non-violent form of society)

How do individualists believe the state should be abolished?

- Individualist anarchists are unlikely to support organised direct action such as a strikes/revolutions, as they are collective in nature and involve breaching individual rights.

- Max Stirner advocates 'insurrection' rather than 'revolution', calls for each individual to withdraw from both the state and capitalist labour to pursue only their self-interest

(He argues the law does not morally bind the individual to act - even if one has participated in it through an election/referendum, one is not obliged to obey if it later conflicts with their own self-interest)

How do anarcho-capitalists believe the state should be abolished?

- Anarcho-capitalists rely on a mixture of persuasion/argument, and giving conditional support to 'free market' parties/governments seeking to reduce size of state (hence they may accept a more piecemeal or gradualist approach than other anarchists)

- They may support non-state alternatives for service provision e.g. private schools & hospitals, charities, Neighbourhood Watch etc.

- Some advocate non-violent forms of civil disobedience, e.g. Henry Thoreau's refusal to pay tax to fund war in Mexico, leading to his imprisonment

What were some features of Anarchist Catalonia (1936-9)?

'People's Army' of volunteers

Factories run by worker committees

Collective farms

Money replaced by vouchers

Free love culture

(Defeated by General Franco's forces in 1939)

What were some features of Ukraine's anarchic system (known as 'free territory) following the Russian revolution in 1917?

Operated a commune-based economic system;

Volunteer force called 'revolutionary insurrectionary army of Ukraine'

(Invaded by Russian bolshevists in 1919 and became part of Soviet Union)

Give some recent examples of movements influenced by collectivist anarchism

Elements of anti-globalisation movement/G8 protestors

Experiments with 'model communities' - Kibbutzim, 'squats' (common e.g. in Barcelona)

Youth culture: "punk" e.g. Sex Pistols

Peace movement e.g. CND

Give some recent examples of movements influenced by individualist anarchism

Elements of 'new right' supporting a reduction in size/functions of the state

Some aspects of Tea Party wing of US Republican Party - Ron Paul's bids for Presidency

'Libertarian Alliance' in UK - pressure group headed by Sean Gabb, campaigning for a free-market society

Private provision of services such as health, education, and role of charitable/voluntary sector

How do anarchists explain human vice, wrongdoing, irrationality etc. despite their very positive view of human nature?

- The human mind/ behaviour is malleable: it responds to the social conditions under which people live

- Our current character 'defects' are the fault of the state, authority-institutions, and (for some anarchists) the market economy, but better conditions would produce better people.

- There are also two alternatives to the notion of original sin (which is rejected by anarchists due to its religious association):

1) Humans are a 'blank canvas'; our attributes simply reflect our social surrounds

2) Rousseau's view of 'noble savage': we are naturally good but have been corrupted by existing institutions

In what ways are anarchists in agreement regarding human nature?

1) No need for power/authority institutions for humans beings to flourish (state, laws, church etc.)

2) Co-operation and order are possible in absence of a state

Rejects conservative account of human nature as fundamentally flawed, we are 'perfectable' (i.e. a utopian view)

3) Flaws in human beings are due to corruption by existing institutions rather than defects of human nature

In what ways are anarchists in disagreement regarding human nature?

1) Major difference over fundamental motives for conduct, which are potential basis for economic production:

- Self-interest (Stirner)

- Mixed (anarcho-capitalists, Proudhon)

- Altruism/'mutual aid' (Kropotkin)

2) Nature of 'order' in anarchist society differs, from unions of egoists (Stirner) to collectivisation (Bakunin, Kropotkin)

3) Conception of human 'virtue' varies from individual rationality (Stirner & anarcho-capitalists), to solidarity/sense of community (collectivists)

4) Anarcho-communists, syndicalists and mutualists (to some extent) emphasise equality (alongside freedom) as a fundamental human value - egoists and anarcho-capitalists less so