research methods psychology aqa

research aim

a statement of what research is looking to investigate

hypothesis

precise and testable statement of what the research is investigating

dependent variable

measured experimental factor

independent variable

manipulated experimental factor

operationalise

ensuring variables are in a form that can be tested

standardised procedure

a set of procedures that are the same of all participants in the study

extraneous variables

variables that do not systematically change with the independent variable but that may have an effect on the dependent variable

directional hypothesis

states exactly what outcome is expected from the experiment, using comparative language to describe the expected outcome of each condition

non-directional hypothesis

states that there will be a difference in performance between the conditions in the experiment, but not what the difference will be

confounding variables

if a variable has actually been found to have influenced the results the results of the research then it would be considered to have confounded the results

demand characteristics

those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects

investigator effects

Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the research outcome

random sampling

every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. does not guarantee a representative sample. if it is large enough, it should be representative. participants may not want to be in the research. samples could be biased in terms of age, gender, race etc

opportunity sampling

the sample consists of whoever happens to be available at the time where the study is happening. prone to bias, sample may not represent target population

systematic sampling

the researcher picks people according to a system, for example every fourth person is chosen. reduces researcher bias, but some potential ppts may be missed due to not being at the chosen location/situation

internal validity

extent to which the results of the study are due to the tested variable rather than extraneous or confounding variables

external validity

the extent to which the results of the study can be generalised to other people

internal reliability

concerned with internal consistency and is demonstrated in the way that the procedure is applies and the measurements used

external reliability

how consistent a measure is over time

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

presumptive consent

Asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, if yes then presume the sample would

prior general consent

Before participants are recruited they are asked whether they are prepared to take part in research where they might be deceived about the true purpose

retrospective consent

Once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are not happy.

confidentiality

the act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals

debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

protection from harm

the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm

empirical methods

data collection that produces verifiable findings and is carried out using systematic procedures involving sensory information

objectivity

treating facts/data without influence from personal feelings or prejudices

falsifiability

a feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong

paradigm

shared set of assumptions about the content and methods of a particular discipline

paradigm shift

occurs when a competing paradigm challenges the dominant set of assumptions

primary data

gathered by the researcher first hand in order to answer their specific research question

secondary data

already been gathered for other research purposes, including government stats or studies done by other researchers

mean

add all the numbers, divide by how many there are

median

middle of a sorted set of numbers

mode

the number that occurs most often in a set of data

ecological validity

The extent to which a study is realistic or representative of real life (can be generalised to those situations)

covert observation

Participants do not know they are being observed. unethical, no consent however less demand characteristics

overt observation

Participants know they are being observed, possibility of demand characteristics

When is a directional hypothesis used?

When the findings of previous research studies suggest a particular outcome

When is a non-directional hypothesis used?

When there is no previous research or findings from earlier studies are contradictory

Calculated Value

The number the researcher is left with after the statistical test has been calculated. It is compared to the critical value to see whether the results are significant.

critical value

The critical values table is given to you.

To use the critical values you need to know:

1) Desired significance level (usually 0.05)
2) The number (N) of participants
3) Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional

Statistical testing

Provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. In psychology, they tell us whether differences or relationships between variables are statistically significant or have occurred by chance.

Sign test

a statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items. data should be nominal or better

peer review

the assessment of scientific work by other specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality

economy

the state of a country of region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services

Aims of Peer Review

1) To allocate funding properly and appropriately. It stops researchers spending lots of money on investigations which may encounter problems. Also it helps to develop the areas of psychology that need to be developed,
2) To validate the quality of research. It establishes more accurate to inter-observer reliability. Additionally it makes sure that you are measuring what you set out to measure.
3) To suggest amendments and improvements. It allows researchers to get more accurate results as it eliminates potential problems.

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
does not indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or spread out
influenced by outliers

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
more precise measure of dispersion as it includes all values within the final calculation

nominal data

data of categories only. Data cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme. (Gender, Race, Religion)
can be collected by asking open questions or multiple choice

ordinal data

data exists in categories that are ordered but differences cannot be determined or they are meaningless. (Example: 1st, 2nd, 3rd). generally used to depict non-mathematical ideas, used for order (e.g scales) to gather relative feedback (usually)

Interval Data

Differences between values can be found, but there is no absolute 0. (Temp. and Time). indicated difference between two entities. open doors for statistical analysis of provided data

histograms

Used when data is continuous. The bars touch each other

bar chart

A form of graph in which numeric values are represented by horizontal or vertical rectangles. discrete data (in categories)

scattergrams

They show associations between co-variables not differences
Either of the variables can be placed on the X/Y axis

Positive skewed distribution

Most of the scores are bunched towards the left. The mode is to the left of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the right.

negative skewed distribution

Most of the scores are bunched towards the right. The mode is to the right of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the left.

laboratory experiment

controlled condition, increase level of control, reduce level of ecological validity

field experiment

participant's natural surroundings, increase ecological validity, reduce level of control and demand characteristics

quasi-experiment

An experiment in which investigators make use of control and experimental groups that already exist in the world at large. Also called a mixed design.

natural experiment

An experiment in which nature, rather than an experimenter, manipulates an independent variable.

observational research

involves gathering primary data by observing relevant people, actions, and situations, typically small groups. hard to generalise, specific, variables uncontrolled

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. high validity, less demand characteristics, generalisable. difficult to control variables, large investment of time and money

structured observation

people are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks

participant observation

a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities. ppts may change their behaviour due to suspicion. unethical for researchers to deceive ppts with a fake identity

Non-participant observation

when the researcher observes behavior without participating in that behavior. for ethical reasons, people must be told that they're being observed, from this they may alter their behaviour (observer effect and demand characteristics)

questionnaires

a list of questions to be asked of respondents. able to access many participants,

interviews

person-to-person conversations for the purpose of gathering information by means of questions posed to respondents. high validity due to rapport between interviewer and interviewee. interviewer can explain misunderstandings. researcher bias, demand characteristics, difficult to analyse

structured interview

a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions. can lead to serendipitous findings.

unstructured interview

An interview in which the question-answer sequence is spontaneous, open-ended, and flexible.

social desirability bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. better for large samples of ppts which reflects diversity of a population and is more generalisable. depth of information is lessened. people may lie in the surveys

Correlation

a mutual relationship or connection between two or more things. if one variable changes, so does the other

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. number from -1 to +1 that indicated the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. the closer to 1, the more strongly related the variables are. closer to 0, weaker relationship, less predictable relationship

sign of the correlation

positive- the variables move in the same direction, as one variable increases/decreases, so does the other. negative- the variables move in opposite directions. a decrease in one is associated with a decrease in the other

correlational research

allows us to discover the strength and direction that exists between two variables. correlation is limited because establishing the existence of a relationship tells us little about cause and effect

aim

what the experiment is trying to achieve

null hypothesis

the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error.

alternative hypothesis

The hypothesis that states there is a difference between two or more sets of data.

Volunteer sampling

A sample of participants produced by a sampling technique that relies solely on inviting people to take part. Certain personalities are more likely to volunteer themselves

stratified sampling

A type of probability sampling in which the population is divided into groups with a common attribute and a random sample is chosen within each group

pilot study

a study completed before (or sometimes after) the study of primary interest, usually to test the effectiveness or characteristics of the manipulations. made with smaller number of participants (opportunity sample). allows for modification of methodology if necessary. provides researchers with practice, allowing the real study to go smoothly.

repeated measures design

The same participants are used in all the conditions in an experiment. minimises ppt variables as same people are being studied. however order effects may be present as ppts may guess the aim of the study and change their behaviour

Independent groups design

Different participants are used in each condition in an experiment. ppts variables as there is a larger amount of people. avoids order effects and makes it harder for participants to guess the aim of the study.

matched pairs design

A method of assigning subjects to groups in which pairs of subjects are first matched on some characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to groups.

Event sampling

the observer records all instances of a particular behavior during a specified time period. make the process of observing behaviour more reliable. can simplify and reduce the level of detail, so validity is reduced

time sampling

The procedure of observing and recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments

Behavioural categories

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable

leading question

a question that implies that one answer would be better than another

Closed questions

Questions that can usually be answered with yes or no, multiple choice or on a scale

Open questions

questions that allow for a variety of extended responses. provide richer detail, harder to summarise and analyse

Jargon

vocabulary distinctive to a particular group of people

questionnaires evaluation

reliable (easy to replicate), ethical, lots of data can be gathered quickly, can generate quantitative data which is easy to analyse. lack validity, demand characteristics, social desirability, hard to write questions worded correctly

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

extraneous variable

In an experiment, a variable other than the IV that might cause unwanted changes in the DV.

Counterbalancing

A method of controlling for order effects in a repeated measure design by either including all orders of treatment or by randomly determining the order for each subject. half ppts complete condition 1 first, then 2. the other half do the opposite

standardisation

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.

Random allocation

Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques