Studied by 15 people
research aim
a statement of what research is looking to investigate
hypothesis
precise and testable statement of what the research is investigating
dependent variable
measured experimental factor
independent variable
manipulated experimental factor
operationalise
ensuring variables are in a form that can be tested
standardised procedure
a set of procedures that are the same of all participants in the study
extraneous variables
variables that do not systematically change with the independent variable but that may have an effect on the dependent variable
directional hypothesis
states exactly what outcome is expected from the experiment, using comparative language to describe the expected outcome of each condition
non-directional hypothesis
states that there will be a difference in performance between the conditions in the experiment, but not what the difference will be
confounding variables
if a variable has actually been found to have influenced the results the results of the research then it would be considered to have confounded the results
demand characteristics
those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects
investigator effects
Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the research outcome
random sampling
every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. does not guarantee a representative sample. if it is large enough, it should be representative. participants may not want to be in the research. samples could be biased in terms of age, gender, race etc
opportunity sampling
the sample consists of whoever happens to be available at the time where the study is happening. prone to bias, sample may not represent target population
systematic sampling
the researcher picks people according to a system, for example every fourth person is chosen. reduces researcher bias, but some potential ppts may be missed due to not being at the chosen location/situation
internal validity
extent to which the results of the study are due to the tested variable rather than extraneous or confounding variables
external validity
the extent to which the results of the study can be generalised to other people
internal reliability
concerned with internal consistency and is demonstrated in the way that the procedure is applies and the measurements used
external reliability
how consistent a measure is over time
informed consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
presumptive consent
Asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, if yes then presume the sample would
prior general consent
Before participants are recruited they are asked whether they are prepared to take part in research where they might be deceived about the true purpose
retrospective consent
Once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are not happy.
confidentiality
the act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals
debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
protection from harm
the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm
empirical methods
data collection that produces verifiable findings and is carried out using systematic procedures involving sensory information
objectivity
treating facts/data without influence from personal feelings or prejudices
falsifiability
a feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong
paradigm
shared set of assumptions about the content and methods of a particular discipline
paradigm shift
occurs when a competing paradigm challenges the dominant set of assumptions
primary data
gathered by the researcher first hand in order to answer their specific research question
secondary data
already been gathered for other research purposes, including government stats or studies done by other researchers
mean
add all the numbers, divide by how many there are
median
middle of a sorted set of numbers
mode
the number that occurs most often in a set of data
ecological validity
The extent to which a study is realistic or representative of real life (can be generalised to those situations)
covert observation
Participants do not know they are being observed. unethical, no consent however less demand characteristics
overt observation
Participants know they are being observed, possibility of demand characteristics
When is a directional hypothesis used?
When the findings of previous research studies suggest a particular outcome
When is a non-directional hypothesis used?
When there is no previous research or findings from earlier studies are contradictory
Calculated Value
The number the researcher is left with after the statistical test has been calculated. It is compared to the critical value to see whether the results are significant.
critical value
The critical values table is given to you.
To use the critical values you need to know:
Desired significance level (usually 0.05)
The number (N) of participants
Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional
Statistical testing
Provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. In psychology, they tell us whether differences or relationships between variables are statistically significant or have occurred by chance.
Sign test
a statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items. data should be nominal or better
peer review
the assessment of scientific work by other specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality
economy
the state of a country of region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services
Aims of Peer Review
To allocate funding properly and appropriately. It stops researchers spending lots of money on investigations which may encounter problems. Also it helps to develop the areas of psychology that need to be developed,
To validate the quality of research. It establishes more accurate to inter-observer reliability. Additionally it makes sure that you are measuring what you set out to measure.
To suggest amendments and improvements. It allows researchers to get more accurate results as it eliminates potential problems.
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution does not indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or spread out influenced by outliers
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score more precise measure of dispersion as it includes all values within the final calculation
nominal data
data of categories only. Data cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme. (Gender, Race, Religion) can be collected by asking open questions or multiple choice
ordinal data
data exists in categories that are ordered but differences cannot be determined or they are meaningless. (Example: 1st, 2nd, 3rd). generally used to depict non-mathematical ideas, used for order (e.g scales) to gather relative feedback (usually)
Interval Data
Differences between values can be found, but there is no absolute 0. (Temp. and Time). indicated difference between two entities. open doors for statistical analysis of provided data
histograms
Used when data is continuous. The bars touch each other
bar chart
A form of graph in which numeric values are represented by horizontal or vertical rectangles. discrete data (in categories)
scattergrams
They show associations between co-variables not differences Either of the variables can be placed on the X/Y axis
Positive skewed distribution
Most of the scores are bunched towards the left. The mode is to the left of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the right.
negative skewed distribution
Most of the scores are bunched towards the right. The mode is to the right of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the left.
laboratory experiment
controlled condition, increase level of control, reduce level of ecological validity
field experiment
participant's natural surroundings, increase ecological validity, reduce level of control and demand characteristics
quasi-experiment
An experiment in which investigators make use of control and experimental groups that already exist in the world at large. Also called a mixed design.
natural experiment
An experiment in which nature, rather than an experimenter, manipulates an independent variable.
observational research
involves gathering primary data by observing relevant people, actions, and situations, typically small groups. hard to generalise, specific, variables uncontrolled
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. high validity, less demand characteristics, generalisable. difficult to control variables, large investment of time and money
structured observation
people are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks
participant observation
a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities. ppts may change their behaviour due to suspicion. unethical for researchers to deceive ppts with a fake identity
Non-participant observation
when the researcher observes behavior without participating in that behavior. for ethical reasons, people must be told that they're being observed, from this they may alter their behaviour (observer effect and demand characteristics)
questionnaires
a list of questions to be asked of respondents. able to access many participants,
interviews
person-to-person conversations for the purpose of gathering information by means of questions posed to respondents. high validity due to rapport between interviewer and interviewee. interviewer can explain misunderstandings. researcher bias, demand characteristics, difficult to analyse
structured interview
a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions. can lead to serendipitous findings.
unstructured interview
An interview in which the question-answer sequence is spontaneous, open-ended, and flexible.
social desirability bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. better for large samples of ppts which reflects diversity of a population and is more generalisable. depth of information is lessened. people may lie in the surveys
Correlation
a mutual relationship or connection between two or more things. if one variable changes, so does the other
correlation coefficient
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. number from -1 to +1 that indicated the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. the closer to 1, the more strongly related the variables are. closer to 0, weaker relationship, less predictable relationship
sign of the correlation
positive- the variables move in the same direction, as one variable increases/decreases, so does the other. negative- the variables move in opposite directions. a decrease in one is associated with a decrease in the other
correlational research
allows us to discover the strength and direction that exists between two variables. correlation is limited because establishing the existence of a relationship tells us little about cause and effect
aim
what the experiment is trying to achieve
null hypothesis
the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error.
alternative hypothesis
The hypothesis that states there is a difference between two or more sets of data.
Volunteer sampling
A sample of participants produced by a sampling technique that relies solely on inviting people to take part. Certain personalities are more likely to volunteer themselves
stratified sampling
A type of probability sampling in which the population is divided into groups with a common attribute and a random sample is chosen within each group
pilot study
a study completed before (or sometimes after) the study of primary interest, usually to test the effectiveness or characteristics of the manipulations. made with smaller number of participants (opportunity sample). allows for modification of methodology if necessary. provides researchers with practice, allowing the real study to go smoothly.
repeated measures design
The same participants are used in all the conditions in an experiment. minimises ppt variables as same people are being studied. however order effects may be present as ppts may guess the aim of the study and change their behaviour
Independent groups design
Different participants are used in each condition in an experiment. ppts variables as there is a larger amount of people. avoids order effects and makes it harder for participants to guess the aim of the study.
matched pairs design
A method of assigning subjects to groups in which pairs of subjects are first matched on some characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to groups.
Event sampling
the observer records all instances of a particular behavior during a specified time period. make the process of observing behaviour more reliable. can simplify and reduce the level of detail, so validity is reduced
time sampling
The procedure of observing and recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments
Behavioural categories
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable
leading question
a question that implies that one answer would be better than another
Closed questions
Questions that can usually be answered with yes or no, multiple choice or on a scale
Open questions
questions that allow for a variety of extended responses. provide richer detail, harder to summarise and analyse
Jargon
vocabulary distinctive to a particular group of people
questionnaires evaluation
reliable (easy to replicate), ethical, lots of data can be gathered quickly, can generate quantitative data which is easy to analyse. lack validity, demand characteristics, social desirability, hard to write questions worded correctly
confounding variable
in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect
extraneous variable
In an experiment, a variable other than the IV that might cause unwanted changes in the DV.
Counterbalancing
A method of controlling for order effects in a repeated measure design by either including all orders of treatment or by randomly determining the order for each subject. half ppts complete condition 1 first, then 2. the other half do the opposite
standardisation
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.
Random allocation
Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques
Note
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