History Final

What philosophical roots does Neobehaviorism have?

Neobehaviorism has roots in positivism, which emphasizes objective data and minimizes speculation.

What were John Watson's goals for psychology?

John Watson aimed for the prediction and control of behavior.

How did Neobehaviorism relate to logical positivism?

Neobehaviorism drew from logical positivism, which divided science into empirical (observable) and theoretical (explanatory) parts.

What is the ultimate authority for logical positivists?

The ultimate authority for logical positivists is empirical observation.

What is an operational definition in psychology?

An operational definition ties theoretical terms to observable phenomena, allowing for measurement and removing ambiguity.

What is operationism in psychology?

Operationism is the insistence that all abstract scientific terms be operationally defined.

How did operationism impact psychological terms?

Operationism allowed theoretical terms like drive, learning, anxiety, and intelligence to be converted into empirical events.

What is physicalism in the context of psychology?

Physicalism is the proposal that all scientific propositions refer to publicly observable, physical objects and events.

What movement is associated with physicalism?

The 'unity of science' movement is associated with physicalism.

What do Neobehaviorists believe about the use of theory?

Neobehaviorists believe that if theory is used, it must align with the demands of logical positivism.

What is the stance of Neobehaviorists on operational definitions?

Neobehaviorists assert that all theoretical terms must be operationally defined.

Why do Neobehaviorists advocate for using nonhuman animals in research?

They believe relevant variables are easier to control and that perceptual and learning processes in nonhuman animals differ only in degree from those in humans.

What is considered the primary mechanism by which organisms adjust to changing environments according to Neobehaviorists?

The learning process is viewed as the primary mechanism for adjustment.

What law of association did Edwin Ray Guthrie believe explained all learning phenomena?

Guthrie believed in Aristotle's law of contiguity.

What was the title of Edwin Ray Guthrie's principal work?

His principal work was titled 'The Psychology of Learning' (1935).

What is Guthrie's one law of learning?

Guthrie's one law of learning is the law of contiguity, stating that a combination of stimuli that has accompanied a movement will tend to be followed by that movement upon recurrence.

What does Guthrie's theory suggest about actions in recurring situations?

According to Guthrie, what you do last in a situation is what you will tend to do if the situation recurs.

What is One-Trial Learning according to Guthrie?

One-Trial Learning posits that learning is completed within a single exposure to a situation.

How does Guthrie distinguish between acts and movements?

An act is a response made to varying stimulus configurations, consisting of many movements, while a movement is a specific response to a specific configuration of stimuli.

What is the significance of the recency principle in Guthrie's theory?

The recency principle states that whatever worked last in the last situation will be repeated when the situation recurs.

What are the three principles that have emerged from Guthrie's theories?

The three principles are: 1) Principle of Association, 2) Principle of Postremity, and 3) Principle of Response Probability.

What does the Principle of Association state?

It states that any stimulus that accompanies a behavior or immediately precedes it by less than half a second becomes a cue for that specific behavior.

What does the Principle of Postremity theorize?

It theorizes that a stimulus followed by more than two responses only becomes associated with the response closest to the stimulus.

What does the Principle of Response Probability state?

It states that the chance of a particular response occurring relates to the size of the stimulus for that response present at the specified time.

Who influenced Hull's Hypothetico-Deductive Theory?

Hull was influenced by Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, and Edward Thorndike.

What is Hull's emphasis in his learning theory?

Hull emphasized experimentation, an organized theory of learning, and the nature of habits as associations between a stimulus and a response.

What is Hull's concept of drive-reduction?

Drive-reduction is the idea that the satisfaction of biological needs reduces cravings, thereby helping to create habits out of behaviors.

What does Hull believe constitutes reinforcement?

Hull believed that a biological need creates a drive in the organism, and the reduction of this drive constitutes reinforcement.

What is Purposive Behaviorism according to Edward Tolman?

Purposive Behaviorism is Tolman's theory that emphasizes the purpose behind behavior, arguing that Watson and Thorndike did not fully articulate learning theory.

What was Tolman's critique of Watson's approach to learning?

Tolman thought Watson gave too much authority to the Stimulus-Response model.

What was Tolman's stance on Thorndike's Law of Effect?

Tolman did not accept Thorndike's Law of Effect.

What did Guthrie reject in his learning theory?

Guthrie rejected the notion of reinforcement.

How does Guthrie view the role of reinforcement in learning?

Guthrie viewed reinforcement as preserving the association that preceded it, rather than being a primary driver of learning.

What is the relationship between practice and performance according to Guthrie?

Guthrie acknowledged that practice appears to improve performance, which is why other theorists included the law of frequency.

What is the Law of Contiguity?

The Law of Contiguity is the principle that states that events occurring close together in time are associated with each other.

What is the Law of Frequency?

The Law of Frequency suggests that the more often we are exposed to a task, the better we become at it.

What is the difference between an act and a skill in Guthrie's theory?

A skill consists of many acts, while an act is a response made to varying stimulus configurations.

What is the role of goals in Hull's systematic behavior theory?

Goals influence behaviors that seek to satisfy primary drives such as hunger, thirst, sex, and avoidance of pain.

How did Hull's theory relate to reinforcement systems?

Hull's theory posits that habits are formed by reinforcing certain behaviors, which satisfy biological needs.

What type of behavior did Tolman consider as reflexive?

Molecular behavior, governed by stimulus to response.

What was Tolman's primary interest in behavior?

Purposive behavior, also known as molar behavior.

How did Tolman describe the role of purpose and cognition in behavior?

They served as descriptions and determinants of behavior.

What are intervening variables according to Tolman?

Theoretical concepts that intervene between environmental events (independent variables) and behaviors (dependent variables).

What is the process that a rat undergoes when navigating a maze according to Tolman?

The rat forms a hypothesis about the maze, ponders which way to turn (vicarious trial and error), and develops a cognitive map.

What does expectancy refer to in Tolman's maze experiment?

The belief that turning a certain way will lead to food.

What philosophical approach did B.F. Skinner follow?

Skinner followed Mach's positivism, focusing on functional explanations rather than causation.

How did Skinner differentiate his behaviorism from Watson's?

Skinner considered feelings, thoughts, and inner events in behavior analysis, but not as causes of behavior.

What aspects of behavior did Skinner's behaviorism take into account?

Genetic endowment, self-knowledge, and creativity.

What did Skinner believe about the necessity of internal motives for explaining behavior?

He denied the necessity of internal motives and focused on environmental influences.

What is Skinner's view on the relationship between environment and behavior?

He believed the environment enforces behavior and that functional relations between environmental conditions and behavior are crucial.

What is Skinner's stance on instincts?

He was wary of instincts and believed researchers often ignored environmental factors.

What did Skinner think about mental events?

He denied a separate realm of conscious events, viewing them as verbal labels for bodily processes.

What is the focus of Skinner's research methodology?

He conducted experiments in the laboratory to discover cause and effect connections.

What is the significance of punishment in Skinner's behaviorism?

Skinner emphasized the role of punishment in understanding behavior.

How did Skinner view the concept of guilt or anxiety?

He believed these concepts could lead researchers astray from understanding environmental influences.

What did Skinner concede about some behaviors?

He acknowledged that some behaviors are innate, influenced by genetic endowment.

What is the main objective of Skinner's approach to behavior analysis?

To focus on objective observations and the functional analysis of behavior.

What does Skinner's deterministic view imply about behavior?

It implies that behavior is determined by environmental factors rather than free will.

What did Skinner believe about the study of mental events?

He thought studying mental events would not yield useful insights.

What is the term used by Tolman for the rat's decision-making process in the maze?

Vicarious trial and error.

What is the outcome if a rat's hypothesis about the maze is confirmed?

The rat develops expectancy and belief about the correct path to food.

What is the relationship between environmental events and conscious events according to Skinner?

Environmental events give rise to conscious events, which cause behavior, and a functional analysis of these events is beneficial.

What did Skinner believe about mental events?

Skinner believed that mental events would eventually be explained through understanding the internal physiological events associated with terms like thinking, choosing, and willing.

What type of monism did Skinner adhere to?

Skinner was a physical monist (materialist), rejecting the existence of consciousness as a nonphysical entity.

How did Skinner differentiate between operant behavior and respondent behavior?

Operant behavior operates on the environment to produce consequences and is emitted by the organism, while respondent behavior is elicited by known stimuli.

What is the significance of consequences in operant behavior?

The important aspect of operant behavior is that it is controlled by its consequences.

How does Skinner's behaviorism differ from Watson's?

Skinner's focus on operant behavior and its consequences made his brand of behaviorism distinct from Watson's.

What are token economies and how are they used?

Token economies are systems used in institutions to encourage desirable behavior, though they remain controversial even when effective.

What is Gestalt Psychology?

Gestalt Psychology is a school that emerged post-Wundt in Germany, opposing elementism and emphasizing holistic perception.

What philosophical influences shaped Gestalt Psychology?

Gestalt Psychology drew from Immanuel Kant's rationalism and Ernst Mach's ideas about perceptions being independent of sensory clusters.

Who were the founders of Gestalt Psychology?

Gestalt Psychology was founded by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka.

What is the core belief of Gestalt Psychology regarding perception?

Gestalt Psychology posits that perception is a whole, emphasizing meaningful configurations rather than isolated pieces.

What is the significance of the quote 'The whole is greater than the sum of its parts' in Gestalt Psychology?

This quote by Wolfgang Köhler encapsulates the fundamental idea that holistic perception is crucial in understanding experiences.

What is the phi phenomenon as discovered by Wertheimer?

The phi phenomenon refers to the perception of apparent movement when two lights are flashed in succession, depending on the timing of the flashes.

What experimental conditions did Wertheimer identify in his studies of the phi phenomenon?

If the interval between flashes is long (200 ms or more), two lights are perceived separately; if short (30 ms or less), both appear on simultaneously; if about 60 ms, one light seems to move.

What was the significance of Wertheimer's 1912 article on the phi phenomenon?

The article is considered the formal beginning of the Gestalt psychology movement.

What role did Kurt Koffka play in Gestalt Psychology?

Kurt Koffka provided empirical evidence for Gestalt theory and contributed to the development of its principles.

What does the term 'Gestalt' translate to, and what does it imply?

Gestalt translates to 'configuration' or 'form,' implying the totality of experiences.

How did Gestalt Psychology serve as an alternative to behaviorism?

Gestalt Psychology valued cognition and holistic perception, contrasting with behaviorism's focus on observable behavior.

What was the impact of the Act Psychology of Franz Brentano on Gestalt Psychology?

Act Psychology influenced Gestalt Psychology by allowing a phenomenological approach to understanding experiences.

What is the significance of the cooperative work of Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka?

Their collaboration led to the establishment and promotion of the Gestalt movement in psychology.

What is the basic principle of Gestalt regarding perception?

The basic principle emphasizes the active and organized nature of perception, where individuals perceive wholes rather than parts.

What is the relationship between Gestalt Psychology and cognition?

Gestalt Psychology prizes cognition, highlighting the importance of understanding the 'whole' in perception.

What was the primary focus of Koffka's contributions to Gestalt Psychology?

Koffka focused on providing empirical evidence to support the principles of Gestalt Psychology.

What does Gestalt theory suggest about human sensory experience?

It should be viewed in its entirety, as the whole is more meaningful than the sum of its parts.

What is the mistake in correlating a stimulus with sensation according to the three-stage proposition?

Functionality of a stimulus must be paired with factual information, not just correlated with sensation.

What does the third premise of the three-stage proposition imply about the relationship between the mind and physical?

It needs to be reconsidered.

What was Köhler's conclusion from studying apes in the Canary Islands?

The apes reached solutions through insight, not trial-and-error.

What are the four characteristics of insightful learning as identified by Köhler?

1) Sudden and complete transition from pre-solution to solution. 2) Performance based on insight is usually error-free. 3) Solutions gained by insight are retained for a long time. 4) Principles gained by insight can be easily applied to other problems (transposition).

What is Lewin's concept of 'life space'?

A Gestalt psychological environment consisting of all influences acting on a person at a given time.

What types of events are included in Lewin's 'life space'?

Internal events (like hunger), external events (like campus surroundings), and recollections of prior experiences.

What is required for something to be considered a psychological fact in Lewin's theory?

It must exist in a person's awareness at that moment.

How does the 'life space' change over time?

It is dynamic and changes with time and experience.

What does a fully constructed 'life space' describe?

A person's motives, values, needs, moods, goals, anxieties, and ideals.

What happens to the life space when a need arises?

It is articulated with facts relevant to the satisfaction of that need.

What are the three types of conflict studied by Kurt Lewin?

1) Approach-Approach Conflict, 2) Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict, 3) Approach-Avoidance Conflict.

What is an example of Approach-Approach Conflict?

Choosing between two concerts presented on the same evening.

What is an example of Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict?

Choosing between staying in a job that one hates or losing income.

What is an example of Approach-Avoidance Conflict?

Wanting to go to Hawaii but not wanting to spend the money required.

What is psychotherapy?

An attempt to help a person with a mental disturbance.