Unit 06: Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

Vocabulary and key concepts regarding the definition, history, creation, and risks of Genetically Modified Organisms as presented in the Unit 06 lecture notes.

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an organism in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination.

Transgenic

A type of organism where the DNA of a target species is modified by the insertion of a gene, or a portion of a gene, from a different species.

Cisgenic

A genetically modified organism where the DNA of the target organism is modified to alter its physical characteristics using DNA from the same species.

Intragenic

A genetically modified organism in which pieces of the organism’s own genetic information have been rearranged to improve a characteristic.

Selective Breeding

The process where humans identify natural variation in the traits of a species and breed individuals with those characteristics to produce offspring with the trait of interest.

Flavr-savr tomato

The first GMO approved for human consumption (1994), designed to disable a gene that dissolved pectin to solve the problem of over-ripening.

Escherichia coli

The first organism to have its DNA directly manipulated in a laboratory, considered the first GMO.

Bt crops

Genetically modified plants containing a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis that produces an endotoxin to kill insect pests.

Bioremediation

The use of genetically modified bacteria to enhance enzymes and metabolic pathways to break down toxic chemicals in the environment, such as oil spills or mercury.

Xenotransplantation

The scientific investigation of providing organs for human transplants, such as kidneys or bone marrow, from genetically-engineered animals like pigs.

Autotrophs

Organisms, such as plants, that have the ability to manufacture their own food from inorganic materials.

Lycophytes

The first plants to possess vascular tissue, comprised of xylem for water transport and phloem for nutrient transport.

Angiosperms

Vascular plants defined by the presence of reproductive structures called flowers, which attract pollinators and produce fruit.

Alternation of Generations

The plant life cycle that produces two types of reproductive structures: diploid (2n) spores via the sporophyte stage and haploid (n) gametes via the gametophyte stage.

Photosynthesis

A metabolic pathway use by plants to manufacture carbohydrates ($CH_2O$) using solar energy, carbon dioxide ($CO_2$), and water ($H_2O$).

Golden Rice

A variety of rice genetically modified with genes from a daffodil and a soil bacterium to produce beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A.

Gene Expression

The process of using information in genes to make proteins, consisting of two stages: transcription and translation.

Enzymes

Proteins that act as catalysts to accelerate chemical reactions, featuring an active site that interacts with specific substrate molecules.

Genomics

The study of the genome, which is the sum of all of the genetic information of an organism.

DNA Probe

A segment of single-stranded DNA containing a fluorescent label used to identify potential genes by binding to complementary pieces of DNA.

DNA Microarray

Also known as a gene chip, these are slides containing thousands of DNA segments used to screen large numbers of DNA sequences using DNA probes.

Recombinant DNA

Genetic material created by using DNA ligase to seal a gene of interest into a bacterial plasmid, containing DNA from two different organisms.

Restriction Enzymes

Special enzymes used to cut DNA at specific nucleotide patterns, allowing researchers to place DNA in particular locations in a plasmid.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

A biotechnology procedure used to copy specific segments of DNA involving three steps: denaturing ($95^\circ C$), annealing ($55^\circ C$), and extension ($72^\circ C$).

Mutagenesis

The intentional introduction of a change into the genetic material of a cell or organism.

CRISPR

A gene-editing method used to remove or insert nucleotides directly into DNA without introducing foreign DNA, resulting in cisgenic GMOs.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

A plant bacterial pathogen used as a vector to introduce recombinant DNA into plant cells to produce transgenic plants.

Particle Bombardment

A transformation method using a gene gun to fire small particles of tungsten or gold coated with modified DNA into plant tissue.

RNA Interference (RNAi)

A process used to silence existing genes by introducing small pieces of RNA complementary to a target mRNA, leading to its breakdown by enzymes.

AquaAdvantage Salmon

A genetically modified fish containing genes from two other fish species that allow it to grow at a faster rate.