MCAT KP Modules: Psych/Soc

associative learning

bond which develops either between two stimuli or between a stimulus and a response

classical conditioning

a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that produces a natural, reflexive response

acquisition phase

when learning takes place

extinction phase

conditioned stimulus (CS) is present without the UCS

second order conditioning

CS can serve as a US for a pairing with a new CS

law of effect

a behavioral response that is followed by a consequence that “satisfies” the subject gains strength, while a response that is followed by a consequence that “annoys” the subject is reduced in strength

operant conditioning

an association is made between a particular behavioral response and a particular stimulus, as a result of the consequence of that response.

dependent measure: rate of responding

instrumental conditioning

the subject learns to perform a specific behavior in response to a stimulus

appetitive stimulus

the subject will approach (never avoid) and will perform work to obtain

aversive stimulus

the subject will avoid (never approach) and will not perform work to obtain

positive reinforcement

presentation of an appetitive stimulus after a target behavior is emitted

likelihood of the target behavior increases

negative reinforcement

removal of an aversive stimulus after a target behavior is emitted

likelihood of the target behavior increases

positive punishment

presentation of an aversive stimulus after an unwanted behavior is emitted

likelihood of the unwanted behavior decreases

negative punishment

removal of an appetitive stimulus after an unwanted behavior is emitted

likelihood of the unwanted behavior decreases

fixed ratio

behavior is reinforced every time after a specific number of responses

variable ratio

behavior is reinforced after an average but unpredictable, number of responses

fixed interval

behavior is reinforced for the first response after a specific amount of time

variable interval

behavior is reinforced for the first response after an average but unpredictable amount of time

primary reinforcer

biologically important (food, water, sleep)

secondary reinforcer

capable of serving as a reinforcer AFTER it has been associated with a primary reinforcer (money, praise, attention)

id

instinctual component of personality and is the source of bodily needs and wants

ego

seeks to please the id’s drive in realistic ways that bring long-term benefit rather than grief or stress

superego

reflects the internalization of cultural rules and is generally considered equivalent to one’s conscience

behaviorism

explains behavior in terms of conditioning and environmental influences without considering unobservable phenomena like thoughts or feelings

reinforcing

the consequence of a response strengthens the association (bond) between the stimulus (S) and that response (R)

probability of R occurring in the future is increased

punishing

the consequence of a response weakens the association between the S and R

probability of the R occurring in the future is decreased

flow rate

state of optimal experience arising from intense involvement in an enjoyable activity that fully utilizes one’s skills

the big five: OCEAN

Openness: creativity

Conscientiousness: loyalty

Extraversion: sociability, activity

Agreeableness: interest in others, helpfulness

Neuroticism: moodiness, anxiety

myers-briggs type indicator—> ONLY WILL APPEAR AS A DISTRACTOR

self-report personality questionnaire which purports to measure different psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions

cognitive psychology

explores the operations of mental processes related to perception, attention, memory, thinking, language, problem solving, decision making, and creativity. INTELLIGENCE

evolutionary psych

organic evolution by natural selection (and sometimes sexual selection) to explain behavior

biopsychosocial model

systematic integration of biological, psychological, and social approaches, particularly to the study of illness and mental health

cross-cultural psych

studies similarities and variances in human behavior across different cultures

developmental psych

ways people change, stay the same, and develop over the course of an entire lifetime from birth to death

social learning theory

general view that learning is largely due to modeling, imitation, and other interactions involving the influences of other people (praise, blame, reward)

convergent thinking

linear, logical steps to arrive at an answer which is best or most correct (school, exam)

divergent thinking

less analytical and more creative (story-writing, composing music)

inductive reasoning

drawing inferences and general principles (i ate 100 oranges and they were all sweet so all oranges are sweet)

deductive reasoning

drawing of logical conclusions from premises (if all oranges are sweet, and this is an orange, it must be sweet)

schema

any pattern of thought that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, organizing knowledge, or problem-solving

broad, imprecise term that can refer to preconceived idea, cognitive framework, system of organizing new info

effects of aging on cognition

recall, episodic memory, processing speed, and divided attention all decline with age

vocabulary, fund of info, and emotional reasoning increase with age

priming

exposure to one stimulus influences a response to subsequent stimuli without conscious guidance or intention

priming effects

usually positive

negative priming: preceding stimulus inhibits the response to a subsequent stimulus

availability heuristic

use of memorial information that happens to be retrieved first. we rely on whatever is most readily available from memory

representative heuristic

determining the probability of an event by its similarity to a prototype or stereotype that is brought to mind

mental set

reliance on solutions that have worked in the past but which may no longer work (rigidity)

functional fixedness

difficulty conceiving new uses for familiar objects

fixation

obsession or preoccupation with a single idea, refusing to consider alternatives

belief perserverance

tendency to maintain to a belief in spite of finding new information that clearly contradicts it

framing

process of defining the context or issues surrounding a question, problem, or event in a way that serves to influence how the context or issues are perceived and evaluated

cognitive bias

systematic pattern of deviation from rationality in judgement, decision making, or other kinds of thinking

hindsight bias, or know-it-all phenomenon

tendency for a person to perceive a past event as more predictable than it actually was. this occurs because people tend to selectively recall information which is consistent with what they know to be true.

response bias

tendency for a research participant to give a particular response, especially an incorrect or false one, disproportionately more often than the other available responses, regardless of the stimulus condition. this may occur because of the way a question is framed or phrased

salience bias

occurs when stimuli that are more prominent of emotionally striking receive a disproportionate amount of attention. can be perceived or recalled more easily. may be considered more likely to occur because of its salience.

confirmation bias

tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one’s prior beliefs or values while ignoring contrary or contradictory information

belief perseverance

a person maintains a prior belief despite being aware of new information that clearly contradicts it. most undesirable outcome of a person’s persistent tendency toward a confirmation bias. it is NOT denial which is a defense mechanism, not a cognitive one

expectation bias

a person’s expectations about an outcome influences their perceptions

backfire effect

occurs when a person responds to evidence which contradicts their beliefs by believing even more strongly in their beliefs, rather than by being persuaded

egocentric bias

tendency to rely too heavily on one’s own point of view or to dismiss the perspective of other people

planning fallacy

tendency for a person to underestimate the time required to complete a task or project. this effect occurs because the details or carrying out the task or project are not obvious

overconfidence

tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s judgements. displayed by a poor caibration level

illusion of control

irrational belief that external events result from one’s own actions or choices. ex: fan wearing a lucky hat helps the sports team win

barnum effect

a person thinks that vague, general descriptions apply to them specifically. ex: if a person is hurt by someone they love, they think that this applies only to them, when it applies to everyone.

false consensus effect

a person assumes that their personal qualities, characteristics, beliefs, and actions are relatively widespread throughout the general population

projection bias

a cognitive bias in which a person overestimates how much their future self will share the same values, beliefs, and behaviors as their current self. ex: a young gymnast imagines that they will still be performing cartwheels at age 75, the gymnast has no idea what is it like to be 75 so they are assuming

halo effect

rating bias in which positive impressions of an attitude object positively influence a person’s attitude in another unrelated area

availability bias (aka availability heuristic)

tendency to believe that examples of things that readily come to mind, or which are most readily available from memory, are more common than is actually the case

misinformation effect

a person’s retrieval of episodic information becomes less accurate because of “post-event information”

base-rate fallacy

when a person ignores the base rates, or prior probabilities, in favor of information pertaining only to a specific case

just-world hypothesis

the assumption that the world is a fair and orderly place in which people get what they deserve. “he had it coming”

dunning-kruger effect

tendency for people with low ability or expertise to overestimate their ability or knowledge. effect has been reported in fields like business, politics, medicine, etc.

mere exposure effect

the finding that people show an increased preference for a stimulus merely as a consequence of repeated exposure to that stimulus. ex: a person only likes someone because they’ve met a couple times

anchoring bias

occurs when an individual’s decisions are irrationally influenced by a particular reference point. ex: 7 × 6 × 5 is more than 5 × 6 × 7

reactance

refers to an unpleasant motivational reaction to offers or rules which are perceived to threaten specific behavioral freedom. ex: members who were told that they have to do it were more angry than members who were told to consider it.

defense mechanism

an unconscious psychological strategy that is used to protect a person’s ego from the anxiety which arises from unacceptable, or threatening, thoughts or feelings

projection

attributing a person’s unacceptable thoughts or impulses onto another person

ex: a person who feels like fighting someone accuses that person of wanting to fight them

denial

the refusal to accept reality by simply denying it

ex: a person with a terminal disease convinces themselves that they will be cured

repression

banishment to the unconscious of threatening, negative thoughts, painful memories, etc

ex: a person who commits an act of aggression represses the memory and is unable to recall being so aggressive

regression

reverting to an earlier stage of development

ex: a fearful child goes back to thumb sucking

rationalization

explaining an immoral or undesirable actions using a made up explanation or excuse that allows the person to feel comfortable, even if they know on an unconscious level that it is wrong

ex: a person claims they crashed their car not because of carelessness, but because they were swerving out of the way of a pedestrian

displacement

substituting feelings that are connected with one person onto another easier, safer, or more permissible person

ex: a person who is angry at their boss comes home and displaces their anger by yelling at their spouse

reaction formation

the denial and replacement of unacceptable or threatening impulses with their opposite

ex: a person who is uncomfortable with racist thoughts speaks out publicly against racism

sublimation

the channeling of negative and unacceptable behaviors into behaviors that are positive and socially acceptable

ex: a person who feels anxiety channels it into taking piano lessons and playing the piano

introjection

unconsciously adopting the thoughts, attitudes, values, or personality traits of others

ex: while mourning the death of a compassionate family member, a person temporarily becomes more compassionate

5 factors to consider when determining if a person has a mental disorder

1. a behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual

2. reflects an underlying psychobiological dysfunction

3. the consequences of which are clinically significant distress or disability

4. must not be merely an expected response to common stressors and losses or a culturally sanctioned response to a particular event

5. primarily a rest of social deviance or conflicts with society

4 D’s

1. deviance

2. distress

3. dysfunction

4. danger

3 approaches to treating mental illness

1. psychological approach: psychotherapy through interactions between a therapist and individual

2. biomedical: use of drugs an brain intervention techniques like ECT, TMS, and psychosurgery

behavioral therapy

form of psychotherapy that applies the principles of learning, operant conditioning, and classical conditioning to eliminate symptoms and modify ineffective or maladaptive patterns of behaviors. useful for treating phobias and breaking habits

exposure therapy

a client is gradually exposed to a source of anxiety or a phobia in an effort to pair a neutral affective state with exposure to the stimulus

aversive therapy

form of behavior therapy in which the client is conditioned to change or eliminate undesirable behavior or symptoms by associating them with unpleasant stimuli

systematic desentization

a specific behavioral therapeutic technique in which, after a patient is trained in deep-muscle relaxation, the client considers a list of phobias in order from weakest to strongest. then the client is encouraged to imagine each phobia while in a state of relaxation. goal is to associate phobia with a state of relaxation

humanistic psychotherapy

predicted on the belief that human nature is fundamentally good and that people are motivated to reach their full potential through self-actualization

client-centered therapy

the therapist strives for genuineness in facilitating a client’s self-actualizing potential. answers to problems are within the client, not the therapist.

wants to eliminate incongruence: lack of alignment between the real self and the ideal self

community approach

involved interventions that are distributed and administered at the community level. workers work in schools, hospitals, police stations, drug treatment clinics, and residential homes. emphasizes preventive services

separation anxiety disorders

fear of separation from home or attachment figure

selective mutism

failure to speak in certain situations

specific phobia

extreme fear of something that poses little or no actual danger

social anxiety

fear in social situations, preventing participation in social activities

panic disorder

frequent panic attacks

agoraphobia

fear of places felt to be unsafe with no easy way to escape. typically fear wide open spaces and leaving the home