Critical Psychology

Empiricism

The use of verifiable evidence as the basis for conclusion; collecting data systematically and using it to develop, support, or challenge a therapy

Another name for empiricism?

Empirical Method and Empirical Research

Quantitative Method

A way of collecting empirical data in which information is converted to numbers for future statistical analysis

Qualitative Method

Way of collecting empirical stat that creates rich, in depth descriptions of some phenomenon or group of people.

How is qualitative method often collected?

Interviews or extended observations

Reflexivity

Process in which researchers reflect on how their own values, biases, and experiences shape the topics they study and interpretations they make

Theory

A statement or set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another

Hypothesis

A statement of the specific result the researcher expects to observe from a particular study is the theory is accurate

Prediction

Another name for hypothesis

Data

A set of observations representing the values of some variable, collected from one or more research studies

Preregistered

Referring to a study in which, before collecting any data, the researcher has stated publicly what the study's outcome is expected to be

Replication

Process of conducting a study again to test whether the result is consistent

Weight of the Evidence

A conclusion draw from a reviewing scientific literature and considering the proportion of studies that is consistent with a theory

Falsifiability

A feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will indicate the theory is wrong

Self Correcting

A process in which scientists make their research available for peer review, replication, and critique, with the goal of identifying and correcting errors in the research

Applied Research

Research whose goal is to find a solution to a particular real world problem

Basic Research

Research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, without regard for direct application to practical problems

Journalism

News and commentary published or broadcast in the popular media and produced for a general audience

Explain Journal

Monthly or quarterly periodical containing peer-reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline or sub discipline, written for scholarly audience.

Another word for Journal

Scientific Journal

Research Consumer

Someone who reads and uses psychological research to understand or improve their work, relationships, or life.

What do research producers and consumers have in common?

Both use empiricism and communicate what they learn

What is a research producer?

Someone who reads and uses psychological research to understand or improve their work, relationships, or life.

Why is it important to develop consumer skills?

Helps develop the ability to read about research with curiosity and a critical eye

Why do clinical psychologist, social workers, and family therapist read research?

To know which therapy technique is most effective

What is the theory-data cycle?

Scientists use data to test, change, or update their theories

Can one study prove a psychological theory?

No. Scientists say data support or are consistent with a theory; they don't say a study proves it

What are Merton’s four scientific norms?

Universalism, communality, disinterestedness, and organized skepticism.

What is universalism?

Judging scientific claims by evidence, not the researcher’s reputation

Communality

Scientific knowledge is shared with the scientific community and public.

Disinterestedness

Scientists should follow the evidence rather than personal beliefs or interests.

Organized Skepticism

Scientists question claims and look for evidence

Why is peer review important?

Helps identify flaws and improve the quality of research

Peer Review

Experts evaluate research before a scientific journal publishes it

Why should you be skeptical of science news?

Journalists may exaggerate results or get research details wrong

What is the best way to get the full story about a study?

Read the original scientific journal article

What is the theory data cycle?

Theory → hypothesis → collect data → compare data with hypothesis → support or revise theory

What is the Scared Straight program?

A program where at-risk teens visit prisons and hear about the harsh realities of prison to discourage crime

Why is Scared Straight an example of critical thinking?

It seemed like it should work intuitively, but research showed the opposite

What does the Scared Straight example teach us?

We should use empirical evidence to evaluate whether an intervention actually works

How were Scared Straight programs tested?

Researchers used randomized controlled studies comparing teens in the program with control groups

How are psychological scientist identified?

By what they do, value, and think

First way psychologists approach their work?

Act as empiricists

Second way psychologists approach their work?

They test theories through research and, in turn, revise their theories based on resulting data

Third way psychologists approach their work?

Follow the basic scientific community norms that prioritize objectivity and fairness

Fourth way way psychologists approach their work?

Take an empirical approach to both applied research and basic research

Fifth way psychologists approach their work?

Make their work public and send results to journals for review and respond to work of other scientist, and sharing findings within popular media

The Cupboard Theory

The theory that infants become attached to caregivers because caregivers provide food

Contact Comfort Theory

The theory that infants become attached to caregivers because of physical comfort, warmth, and contact

What did research on infant monkeys show about the Cupboard Theory

Contact comfort was more important than food in forming attachment

What is the main difference between the Cupboard Theory and Contact Comfort Theory?

 Cupboard Theory → food; Contact Comfort Theory → physical comfort/contact.

What is the main conclusion to remember about the Cupboard Theory?

Food alone cannot explain attachment; research showed that comfort and physical contact play a major role

If a caregiver provided food but never provided physical comfort, what would Contact Comfort Theory predict?

The infant would not necessarily form a strong attachment because food alone does not provide the comfort and security needed for attachment

What does it mean when the data matches the theory's hypothesis?

It strengthens the researchers confidence in the theory

What does it mean when the data doesn't match the theory's hypothesis?

It shows that the theory needs to revised or the research design needs to be improved

2 way scientist say instead of ""prove""?"

A studies data support or is consistent with a theory

Over what percent is psychological research conducted by what population(s)?

80% and English/European speaking

Why does representation of science matter

People identities can shape what they find valuable to study

Why is it important to have diversity in research?

Strong science needs all perspectives and can determine if something is specific to a certain population

What do basic researchers want to understand?

The structure of the visual system, the capacity of human memory, the motivations of a depressed person, or the limitations of the infant attachment system.

Who reviews a research paper?

Usually 3–4 experts in the subject

What do peer reviewers evaluate?

How important the research is, how it fits with existing knowledge, how well the research was done, and how convincing the results are.

Why are peer reviewers kept anonymous

So they can give an honest assessment without worrying about their relationship with the author

What is the goal of peer review

To make sure scientific journals publish important, well-done research

How does science become self-correcting?

Other scientists can find flaws, conduct new studies, or publish critiques and competing research after a study is published

How are psychological scientist identified?

By what they do, value, and think

Hypothesis

A specific predict deprived of theory

Explain Data

Observations used to evaluate the prediction 

What does non supporting data lead too?

Revised theories or improved research designed

Explain Evidence-Based Treatment

A psychotherapy technique whose effectiveness has been supported by empirical research

What are the 3 sources of evidence for people’s beliefs

Experience, intuition, and authority

What do we compare the 3 sources of evidence?

To a superior source of evidence: Empirical Research

Comparison group

A group in a research study that enables researchers to compare what happens both with and without the treatment or variable of interest.

Radical Mastectomy Historical Example

Surgeons led by William Halsted adopted radical mastectomies for breast cancer without a comparison group, assuming it was effective for nearly a century.

Breast Cancer Clinical Trial Finding

randomized trial comparing radical mastectomy to simple mastectomy showed radical mastectomy was no more effective at curing breast cancer.

Why comparison groups are essential in evaluating treatments?

Without a comparison group, researchers cannot determine whether an outcome was caused by the treatment or would have occurred anyway

How was Merton's norm violated by 19th-century breast cancer surgeons

Organized skepticism, because surgeons blindly believed in the surgery's efficacy without collecting comparative empirical evidence.

Systematic Comparison

Process of comparing two or more items using a structured and agreed-upon method to ensure consistency and minimize bias

Cofound

Occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome but in fact other things changed, too

Advantage of a controlled study

Research can set up the conditions to include at least one comparison group

What does consistent results tell us

Scientist can be more confident that the finding is true because it supports their theory

Probabilistic

Describing the empirical method, stating that science is intended to explain a certain proportion (but not necessarily all) of the possible cases.plain a high proportion of cases, but do not explain all cases

Impact of individual exceptions on scientific conclusions

A single personal experience or counterexample represents only one data point in a broader pattern and does not invalidate general research trends

Research trends vs. Individual predictions

General research patterns indicate strong probabilities for outcomes across groups, but cannot guarantee a perfect prediction for any specific individual instance

Confederate

An actor who is directed by the researcher to play a specific role in a research study

Availability Heuristic

Things that pop up easily in our mind that tend to guide our thinking.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to only look at information that agrees with what we want to believe

“Cherry Pick”

Seeking and only accepting evidence that supports what we already think/believe

What has research proved that when people test a hypothesis….

They tend to only seek evidence that supports their expectations and forget to ask questions that would disconfirm their initial view

How does Mertons norm help scientist?

By creating a habit to question everything and seek evidence for both and against their ideas

Bias Blind Spot

Belief that we are unlike to fall prey to the other biases previously described

3 places psychological scientist publish their research

Scholarly Journals, edited books, or write full length scholarly books

Most common way psychologist scientist publish their work

Scholarly Journals

Empirical Journals

Report original study the authors do with new data collection, with method and results

Meta Analysis

Combines the results of many studies and gives a number that summarizes the magnitude or effect size of relationship

Why is meta analysis valued?

Weighs each study equally and does not allow for cherry-picking particular studies

Review Article

A verbal, synthesis of prior studies on a question with no new data

What counts as a scientific source

Empirical journal, Review article, meta analysis, and books

Lateral Reading

A critical reading technique in which, rather than reading deeper into a suspicious website, one

checks its claims on alternative, legitimate news sources