Comprehensive Self-Concepts in Philosophy, Psychology, and Sociology

Understanding the Self — Definition

The Self: a person's own being and character which makes them unique from others; can be studied from social (self as social being), psychological (self-esteem), philosophical (self-knowledge), and anthropological (self-concept) perspectives.

Philosophy (etymology)

Greek roots: philo (love) + sophos (wisdom) → "love of wisdom."

Philosophy (general meaning)

Active pursuit of wisdom; study of all things/being in their ultimate causes and principles by the use of human reason alone.

Philosophy (use)

Set of ideals, standards, or beliefs used to describe and evaluate behavior and thought.

Socrates (469-399 BC)

"Market Philosopher"; taught in Athens. Held that self-knowledge is crucial for a virtuous and meaningful life. Famous lines: "Know thyself." "An unexamined life is not worth living." Believed the self is an immortal soul that exists over time.

Socrates on reality

Reality is dualistic: physical realm vs. ideal realm. Physical realm changes, is imperfect, and dies; ideal realm (of the soul) is perfect, unchanging, immortal.

Socratic method

Dialectic process of questioning to recover knowledge and restore one's "omniscient" self (the soul knew truth in the realm of ideas).

Plato (427-347 BC)

Socrates' student; born into an aristocratic Athenian family; founded the Academy. Upheld the dichotomy of Ideal World (World of Forms—permanent, unchanging reality) vs. Material World (changing copy of the real world).

Plato: Tripartite Soul

1) Rational (reasoning) — divine essence enabling deep thought, wisdom, and true understanding. 2) Appetitive (sensual) — basic biological needs (hunger, thirst, sexual desire). 3) Spirited (feeling) — basic emotions (love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness, empathy).

Medieval Philosophy: St. Augustine (354-430 AD)

Self-confessed sinner from North Africa; bishop of Canterbury (noting religious role). Integrated Plato with Christian thought; man has a bifurcated nature: (a) part dwells in the world and yearns for the Divine (body), (b) part capable of immortality and communion with God (soul). With St. Thomas Aquinas, regarded the self as tripartite (body-soul-spirit).

Tripartite Division of the Self (Medieval)

Body: outer part in contact with the world. Soul: inner part composed of mind, emotions, and will. Spirit: inmost core where the self communes with God.

Modern Philosophy: René Descartes (1596-1650)

"Father of Modern Philosophy"; proponent of rationalism (reason is the chief source and test of knowledge). Methodic doubt even of his own body. Echoed and reshaped dualism (mind and body as distinct). "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am") as foundation. The one thing he cannot doubt is the existence of the thinking self.

John Locke (1632-1704)

British philosopher; leading empiricist (knowledge comes from experience and the senses). Coined "Tabula Rasa."

Locke: Tabula Rasa

Human mind is empty at birth; all ideas are formed through experience.

Locke on personal identity

The self exists in other times and places because of memory of those experiences; a person's memory is involved in defining the self.

Locke on continuity of consciousness

One must have continuity of consciousness — remembering past experiences as part of one's own life — to remain the same person over time.

David Hume (1711-1776)

Scottish lawyer and writer; empiricist; rejected the existence of a permanent soul.

Hume: Bundle Theory

The mind is merely a bundle of perceptions without deeper unity or cohesion, related only by resemblance, succession, and causation; there is no fixed "self," only distinct perceptions.

Hume: Impressions

Basic, lively sensations of experience (e.g., pain, pleasure, heat, cold, happiness, grief).

Hume: Ideas

Copies of impressions (thoughts and images) derived from primary impressions.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Man is a free agent gifted with reason and free will. The self is a product of reason that regulates experience by making unified experience possible; the self constructs its own reality.

Kant: Two Kinds of the Self

Empirical Self (known self): the aspect that makes the self unique (physical attributes, memories, personality, history, culture). Transcendental Self (exists independently of experience): the synthesizing, unifying, organizing principle that interprets, constructs, and gives meaning to sensory data.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Founder of psychoanalytic psychology. Human behavior governed by two drives: Eros (life instinct—sexual instincts, desire to create life, productive work) and Thanatos (death instinct—negative feelings, urges toward death/self-harm). Believed in 3 levels of mind which are neither absolute nor permanent.

Freud: Levels of the Mind — Id (Unconscious Self)

Id operates on the pleasure principle; dominant influence in personality; contains basic instinctual drives seeking immediate gratification.

Freud: Levels of the Mind — Ego (Conscious Self)

Ego operates on the reality principle; organizes behavior in rational, practical ways appropriate to the social environment.

Freud: Levels of the Mind — Superego (Pre-conscious Self)

Superego operates on the moral principle; provides checks and balance to the demands of the Id (internalized morals, ideals, values).

Contemporary Philosophy: Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976)

Problems in philosophy often arise from confusion/misinterpretation of words. Critiqued the mind-body dualism as a "category mistake." "I act therefore I am." The self is how you behave; mind is a concept expressing the entire system of thoughts, emotions, and actions that make up the human self.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)

French philosopher; existentialist (we are responsible for creating purpose). Perception is essential to knowledge of the world. Consciousness is a dynamic form that actively structures our experience. Knowledge of ourselves and the world is based on subjective experience. Body and mind are unified, not separate. Basic consciousness is the foundation for perception and knowledge; everything we are aware of is contained within consciousness.

Paul & Patricia Churchland (1942-present)

Canadian-American philosophers focused on integrating philosophy of mind and neuroscience.

Neurophilosophy

Field that explores how discoveries in neuroscience bear on philosophical questions about the nature of mind.

Churchlands vs. behaviorism

Disagreed with the behaviorist concept of the self (e.g., Ryle's equation of self with bodily behavior).

Churchland view of the self

"The self is the brain"; even morality and free will are products of the brain.

Churchland on method

"To understand the mind, we must understand the brain"; mental states of the mind can influence the physical conditions of the self.

Social Self (sociological)

The self as shaped by and enacted within social relations, roles, and norms.

Self-esteem (psychological)

Evaluation of one's own worth or value; affects motivation, behavior, and well-being.

Self-knowledge (philosophical)

Reflective understanding of one's own nature, capacities, and limitations.

Self-concept (anthropological)

Culturally embedded understanding of who one is; identity formed through culture, history, and shared meanings.