topic 4 psychopathy

what is the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality

Statistical infrequency

Abnormal behaviouris that which is rare/uncommon.

A normal distribution curve can be drawn to show what proportions of people share the characteristics or behaviour in question. Most people will fall on or near the mean for these.

Any individuals that fall outside the ‘normal distribution’ usually about 5% of a population (2 standard deviation points away from the mean) are perceived as being abnormal.

Evaluation (A03) of the statistical infrequency definition

Strength

Objective way of defining abnormality

This way of deciding who is abnormal could be argued to be objective. This is because it is uses unbiased statistical data to establish rare behaviours within a population. Therefore, this definition of abnormality avoids the criticism of the other definitions which are based on subjective standards of what is considered normal or abnormal. This could be considered a strength of this definition as it attempts to define abnormality in a way that is free from human bias.

Evaluation (A03) of the statistical infrequency definition

Limitation

Some disorders are not statistically rare

There are some mental health disorders identified by the diagnostic manuals for mental illness that would not fit within this definition.

For example, depression and anxiety are common mental health disorder however they would not be deemed abnormal according to this definition as they are not statistically rare.

This raises questions over how well statistical infrequency can be used to define abnormality.

Evaluation (A03) of the statistical infrequency definition

Limitation

Fails to account for behaviours that are statistically rare but desirable

There are some behaviours that may be identified as abnormal but are actually quite desirable.

For example, individuals with a very high IQ, which is statistically infrequent, would be deemed abnormal under this definition however this is a very desirable trait therefore it is unlikely to be treated as an ‘abnormality’.

Therefore, using statistical infrequency to define abnormality means that we are unable to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviours.

This is problematic because we need to be able to identify infrequent and undesirable behaviours in order for the definition to be useful in helping people with mental health issues.

what is the Deviation from social norms definition of abnormality

The definition draws a line between desirable and undesirable behaviours and labels individuals behaving undesirably as social deviants.

This is done for both the individual and for society as a whole. We are making a collective judgement as a society about what is right/correct behaviour.

One important consideration is the degree to which a social norm is deviated from and how important society sees that norm as being.

Norms are specific to the culture that we live in and are likely to be different for different situations and different generations, so there are very few behaviours that would be considered universally abnormal.

Example: a person who is unable to discard useless or worn out possessions (hoarding) would be seen as abnormal as this behaviour is considered undesirable and deviates from social norms.

Evaluation (A03) of the social norms definition

Strength

Social norms consider age

Judging behaviours as abnormal based on social norms means that factors like age are considered.

For example, a child having a tantrum in a supermarket would not be seen as abnormal however the same undesirable behaviour would be deemed as abnormal if displayed by an adult.

Therefore, the social norms definition takes into account important factors when establishing if behaviour is abnormal.

Evaluation (A03) of the social norms definition

Limitation

Social norms vary with time

The norms defined by a society vary over time as social attitudes change.

For example, homosexuality was deemed illegal up until the 1967 and was not removed from the mental disorders classification system (ICD) until 1990 however social norms and attitudes have changed since then so it is now no longer deemed an ‘abnormal’ behaviour in our society.

Therefore, the social norms definition is limited in its ability to define abnormality because norms are constantly changing.

Evaluation (A03) of the social norms definition

Limitation

Social norms vary across cultures

Social norms vary within and across cultures so it is difficult to use this definition to assess abnormal behaviour.

There is no universal agreement over social norms, they are culturally specific which means that a person from one cultural group could be labelled abnormal because they are deviating from the norms of a culture different to their own.

For example, in Western societies hearing voices can often be interpreted as a sign of a mental health disorder (schizophrenia) however in other cultures the experience of hearing voices is common and would not be deemed as unusual.

This is a problem because using the deviation from social norms definition could lead to people being incorrectly labelled as abnormal.

explain the Failure to Function Adequately definition of abnormality

When someone’s behaviour suggests that they cannot cope with everyday demands e.g. getting up in the morning, getting washed and dressed, and going to work, then they run the risk of being labelled as abnormal by this definition-they are failing to function adequately.

Behaviouris also considered abnormal when it causes distress leading to an inability to function properly.

It may also be characterised by an inability to experience a normal range of emotions or behaviours.

Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) suggested some other possible features of dysfunction for example:

Maladaptive behaviour

Irrationality

Observer discomfort

Unpredictability

Evaluation (A03) of the failing to function definition

Strength

Focuses on the individual’s experience

This definition recognises the personal experience of the individual.

It acknowledges the importance of considering how the individual feels and how well they are managing to cope unlike other definitions, that simply make judgements on whether the individuals behaviour fits with society’s expectation.

This suggests that this definition is a useful tool for assessing abnormal behaviour as it allows us to view mental disorders from the perspective of the person experiencing it.

Evaluation (A03) of the failing to function definition

Limitation

Some abnormal behaviours do not accompany failure to function

There are some behaviours that would be considered ‘abnormal’ but do not stop the person from functioning or cause them distress.

For example, Harold Shipman was an English doctor who murdered at least 215 patients however he was considered to be a respectable doctor and do not display any of the features of dysfunction.

This demonstrates that many people may not be identified as abnormal according to this definition because they do not suffer from any personal distress and appear to function normally.

Therefore, this definition alone is not sufficient enough to use to determine if a person’s behaviour is abnormal.

Evaluation (A03) of the failing to function definition

Limitation

Normal abnormality

This definition does not consider situations in which a healthy, psychological response for someone may mean a period of failing to function adequately.

For example, when a loved one dies it is normal to suffer distress and not be able to cope with everyday demands.

Grieving is a perfectly natural response to overcoming loss and should not become a factor in defining that person as abnormal. This is an issue as it means someone’s behaviour may be incorrectly identified as abnormal.

explain the deviation from ideal mental health for abnormality.

Compared with previous definitions that attempt to define what is abnormal behaviour, this definition focuses on the absence of ideal mental health to judge abnormality.

Marie Jahoda (1958) suggested the six key features that define ideal mental health (see below).

The more these criteria are satisfied, the healthier the individual is. The more criteria someone fails to meet, the more abnormal they are.

REMEMBER THE ACRONYM – PRAISE

• Positive attitude towards self: An Individual should feel happy towards themselves, possessing high self-esteem.

• Resistance top stress: Individuals should be able to resist the effects of stress by having coping strategies.

• Accurate perception of reality: Individuals should have an objective and realistic view of the world.

• Independent (autonomy): Individuals should be independent and self reliant and be able to make personal decisions.

• Self-Actualization: Individuals should be focused on the future and their own personal growth and development. ‘Becoming everything one is capable of becoming.’

• Environmental Mastery: Being competent in all aspects of life and able to meet the demands of every situation. Having the flexibility to adapt to changing life circumstances.

the deviation from ideal mental health for abnormality.

Strength

Comprehensive criteria for mental health

Unlike other definitions, the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality attempts to define abnormality by looking at the person as a whole, considering a multitude of factors that can affect their mental health and well‐being.

It covers a broad range of criteria such as how the person views themselves and how they cope with stressors and the demands of varying situations.

Therefore, this definition of abnormality could be praised for providing comprehensive criteria for mental health.

the deviation from ideal mental health for abnormality.

Limitation

Criteria is too demanding

Most people do not meet all the criteria set out by Jahoda and as a result, under this definition, the majority of people would be classified as abnormal.

For example, few people achieve self-actualisation and experience personal growth all the time. The absence of these features is unlikely to indicate that someone is suffering from a mental health disorder.

Therefore, we need to question the usefulness of this definition as a way of classifying abnormal behaviour.

the deviation from ideal mental health for abnormality.

Limitation

Ethnocentric criteria

This definition reflects Western views of psychological ‘normality’.

Many of the concepts, such as autonomy and self-actualisation, may not be recognised as aspects of ideal mental health in many cultures.

For example, collectivist cultures tend to emphasise the importance of inter-dependence (everyone depending on each other) rather than autonomy (independence).

This is problematic because it could lead to people from non-Western cultures being incorrectly labelled as ‘abnormal’.

Phobias, Depression and Obsessive-compulsive disorder(OCD)

The characteristics of each of these disorders are split into three types - behavioural, emotional and cognitive.

explain each of these

Behavioural characteristics refer to how the person is behaving or acting. For example: crying, running, screaming, freezing, fainting, collapsing, vomiting.

Cognitive characteristics refer to a person’s thoughts and mental processes (e.g. attention, perception, reasoning) For example, difficulty concentrating, high alertness, negative or distorted thinking, irrational thinking, recurrent thoughts.

Emotional characteristics referto how the person feels. For example: feeling worthless, worried, distressed, scared, angry, sad, calm.

what are PHOBIAS

Phobias are a type of anxiety disorder. Anxiety is an emotion all people experience and is a natural response to potentially dangerous stimuli, but phobias are characterised as: an extreme fear of an object or situation or activity which is irrational and disproportionate (to the actual danger)

Characteristics of phobias

Behavioural:

Behavioural:

• Panic – in the presence of the phobic stimulus behaviours include crying, screaming, running away. Children may react slightly differently, for example, by freezing or clinging onto an adult when in the presence of the feared stimuli.

• Avoidance – Not going to any places or situations where they might come into contact with the phobic stimulus. E.g. avoiding parks or picnics during the summer because of a wasp phobia.

Characteristics of phobias

Emotional:

Emotional:

• Fear – feelings of terror or feeling scared e.g. feeling terrified of dying in an aeroplane crash.

• Anxiety – feelings of worry or distress in the presence of the phobic stimulus.

Characteristics of phobias

cognitive

Cognitive:

• Selective attention tothe phobicstimulus – in the presence ofthephobicstimulus, the person will find it difficult to direct their attention elsewhere e.g. not being able to look away from a moth that’s come into your house.

Therefore, a person’s selective attention will cause them to become fixated on the object they fear, because of their irrational beliefs about the danger posed.

• Irrational beliefs – illogical, erroneous, or distorted ideas.

E.g. a person with a phobia of spiders may believe that all spiders are dangerous and deadly, despite the fact that no spiders in the UK are actually deadly.

THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH TO EXPLAINING PHOBIAS

explain The two-process model by Mowrer

Mowrer proposed this model which suggests that phobias are learnt and assumes that phobias develop through an experience of a negative or traumatic event. The two-process model suggests phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and then maintained through operant conditioning.

explain how phobias are acquired - Classical conditioning:

Phobias are acquired by forming an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus which creates a fear response. The once neutral stimulus now becomes a conditioned stimulus which creates a conditioned ‘fear’ response.

give a case study example of how a phobia can be acquired through classical conditioning.

watson and raynor. (rat)

The case study of Little Albert (Watson & Raynor, 1920)

Before conditioning:

When Albert was presented with a white rat, he showed no fear response.

Watson & Raynor found that Albert showed a natural fear response to loud noises (unconditioned stimulus

During conditioning:

Albert was presented with the white rat (NS) again and at the same time the researchers struck a steel bar, making a loud noise (UCS) – this led to Albert crying (unconditioned response -UCR)

After conditioning:

Now, the white rat (previously the NS but is now the conditioned stimulus

Once a phobia has been acquired, itis maintained by operant conditioning.

explain How phobias are maintained - Operant conditioning:

Avoidance of the feared object or situation reduces the unpleasant feelings of fear/anxiety caused by the conditioned stimulus.

This acts as negative reinforcement (you are removing something negative and are rewarded for doing so i.e. you feel less anxiety/fear) which strengthens the avoidance behaviour so the phobia is maintained.

For example:

Peter is afraid of wasps, when he sees a wasp he becomes very anxious. He does not go out and play with his friends in the park - he is able to avoid a situation where there may be a wasp.

This leads to his anxiety being reduced so he continues to avoid situations in which there may be wasps and his phobia of wasps is maintained.

Outline the two process model as an explanation of phobias (6 marks)

The two‐process model suggests that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and are maintained through operant conditioning.

Phobias are acquired by forming an association between an object/situation and something which triggers a fear response for example, a person being bitten by a dog.

The dog, which was initially a neutral stimulus (NS), would become associated with being bitten, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

This pairing leads to the dog becoming a conditioned stimulus which then creates fear, a conditioned response (CR).

Phobias are maintained through reinforcement. Those with a phobia will avoid the phobic stimulus which reduces anxiety, acting as negative reinforcement.

For example, if a person with a dog phobia sees one whilst out walking, they might avoid it by crossing the road.

This reduces the person’s anxiety and so negatively reinforces their behaviour, making the person more likely to continue avoiding dogs, thus maintaining their phobia.

Evaluation (A03) of the two-process model

Research

Supporting evidence for the acquisition of phobias via classical conditioning

There is evidence to support the acquisition of phobias via classical conditioning.

For example, Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned Little Albert to have a fear of white rats by pairing a loud noise (UCS), which scared Albert (UCR), with a white rat (NS). This eventually led to Albert responding to the white rat (CS) with fear (CR).

Furthermore, Sue et al (1994) found that people with phobias often recall a specific incident when their phobia appeared e.g. being bitten by a dog or experiencing a panic attack in a social situation.

Both of these studies show how phobias can be learnt through association however they do not tell us how these phobias were maintained therefore we cannot conclude that they fully support the two-process model.

Evaluation (A03) of the two-process model

Issue

Other factors may play a role

dinardo (phobia of dogs)

An issue with this explanation is that some people have negative experiences without developing a phobia.

For example, Dinardo (1988) found participants without a phobia of dogs experienced a similar proportion of fearful incidents with a dog as those with a phobia of dogs.

This challenges the two-process model as it suggests that not everyone will learn to fear situations or objects through association with a negative experience.

This could mean that there are other factors such as cognition or individual differences that play a role in the development of the phobia which the behaviourist approach does not consider.

Evaluation (A03) of the two-process model

Application

Systematic desensitisation and flooding

Understanding how phobias are acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning has led to the development of behavioural treatments for phobias.

For example, systematic desensitisation helps people form a new association with the phobic stimulus (relaxation instead of fear) using the principles of classical conditioning while flooding prevents people from avoiding their phobias and stops negative reinforcement taking place.

These treatments have been found to be very effective at treating specific phobias which not only provides support for the validity of the two-process model but also demonstrates the usefulness of explaining phobias using the behaviourist approach.

Evaluation (A03) of the two-process model

Alternative explanation

Biological preparedness

Some common phobias such as fear of heights, snakes and insects often do not develop as a result of a negative experience.

These phobias could be better explained using the biological preparedness theory which suggests humans develop certain phobias because they were adaptive in our evolutionary past.

For example, individuals that avoided dangerous animals or situations would be more likely to survive long enough and pass on their genes than those who did not.

This suggests that the two-process model does not provide a full explanation for how all phobias develop

1: A01 Outline 2 behavioural, 2 emotional, and 2 cognitive characteristics of phobias. (6 Marks)

One behavioural characteristic of phobias is avoidance. This occurs when an individual actively stays away from the object or situation they fear. For instance, a person with arachnophobia might refuse to enter a room if they suspect a spider is inside.

Another behavioural characteristic is panic. This happens when an individual reacts physically to their fear by crying, screaming, or running away when confronted with the phobic stimulus.

One emotional characteristic of phobias is intense fear and anxiety. This means the person experiences overwhelming distress when they encounter or think about the feared object or situation, even if it poses little to no real danger.

Another emotional characteristic is immediate anxiety response. This refers to the instant surge of anxiety a person feels upon exposure to the phobic stimulus, often leading to sensations of dread or panic.

One cognitive characteristic of phobias is irrational beliefs. This means the individual holds unrealistic or exaggerated thoughts about the danger associated with their phobia. For example, someone with a fear of heights might believe they will certainly fall, even if they are standing on a safe balcony.

Another cognitive characteristic is difficulty focusing on anything else. When the phobic stimulus is present, the individual struggles to concentrate on anything other than the fear-inducing object, which can interfere with daily activities.

2: A01 Outline 2 behavioural, 2 emotional, and 2 cognitive characteristics of depression. (6 Marks)

One behavioural characteristic of depression is changes in sleep and eating habits. This involves experiencing insomnia (trouble sleeping) or excessive sleep, as well as changes in appetite, leading to weight gain or loss.

Another behavioural characteristic is reduced energy levels. This causes individuals to withdraw from daily activities, including work, socializing, and hobbies, due to constant tiredness or a lack of motivation.

One emotional characteristic of depression is persistent sadness. This is where a person feels a deep sense of hopelessness and despair over a prolonged period.

Another emotional characteristic is irritability or anger. This means the individual may frequently feel frustrated, leading to outbursts directed at themselves or others.

One cognitive characteristic of depression is negative thinking patterns. This involves focusing on the worst possible outcomes and feeling worthless, which can deepen feelings of despair.

Another cognitive characteristic is difficulty concentrating. This makes it hard for the person to focus, make decisions, or remember things, negatively affecting their daily life.

3: A01 Outline 2 behavioural, 2 emotional, and 2 cognitive characteristics of OCD. (6 Marks)

One behavioural characteristic of OCD is compulsions. This means the person engages in repetitive behaviours, such as excessive handwashing or checking locks multiple times, in an attempt to relieve anxiety caused by their obsessive thoughts.

Another behavioural characteristic is avoidance. This occurs when a person deliberately avoids places or situations that might trigger their obsessive thoughts, such as staying away from crowded areas due to fear of germs.

One emotional characteristic of OCD is high levels of anxiety and stress. The obsessive thoughts cause significant distress, making the person feel overwhelmed.

Another emotional characteristic is feelings of guilt or disgust. The individual may feel ashamed of their obsessions or compulsions, or experience an intense sense of discomfort about certain situations or themselves.

One cognitive characteristic of OCD is persistent intrusive thoughts. These are unwanted and distressing thoughts that repeatedly enter the person’s mind, often focusing on fears of contamination, harm, or order.

Another cognitive characteristic is catastrophic thinking. This means the individual believes that unless they perform their compulsions, something terrible will happen, leading to heightened distress.

4: A02 Application – Phobia of Dogs (4 Marks)

One behavioural characteristic of phobias is avoidance. This means a person actively stays away from situations where they might encounter their fear. In Rita’s case, she avoids going to her friend’s house because her friend owns two dogs. This avoidance shows how her phobia is affecting her daily life.

Another behavioural characteristic is freezing or shaking in response to fear. This happens when someone reacts physically to their phobia, such as trembling, feeling unable to move, or panicking. Rita demonstrates this when she states that she "cannot move until the dog has walked away" and that she shakes when they come near her. This highlights the automatic fear response often seen in phobias.