CLINICAL EXAMINATION OF SMALL ANIMALS

What information should be obtained during history taking?

●     Presenting problem

●     When the problem started

●     Frequency of occurrence

●     Previous episodes

●     Other relevant information

How should a veterinarian obtain a good history?

The veterinarian should:

●     Rely on the owner's observations.

●     Ask questions in a logical sequence.

●     Use simple, non-medical language.

●     Record observations rather than interpretations.

●     Confirm important information.

●     Practice active listening.

●     Record both normal and abnormal findings.

What should be assessed during distant inspection?

Assess:

●     Behaviour

●     Demeanour

●     Posture

●     Skin condition

What are the signs of an unhealthy dog?

An unhealthy dog may be:

●     Depressed

●     Unresponsive

●     Fearful

●     Inactive

●     Weak

What should be assessed in posture?

Observe:

Shifting weight onto all four limbs

Body balance

Back arching (pain)

Keeping the abdomen tight

What should be assessed during skin examination?

Assess for:

●     Allergic reactions

●     Parasites

●     Endocrine disorders

●     Abnormal odour

What are the principles of physical examination?

●     Use a logical approach.

●     Start at the head and work through the body.

●     Examine:

○     Eyes

○     Ears

○     Mouth

○     Lymph nodes

○     Heart

○     Lungs

○     Abdomen

○     Legs

○     Temperature

●     Assess body symmetry.

●     Know normal findings to recognize abnormalities.

How should dogs be approached for physical examination?

Recognize the dog's behaviour:

●     Friendly

●     Nervous or fearful

●     Aggressive

Use a muzzle if necessary.

What are the vital signs (TPR)?

TPR includes:

●     Temperature

●     Pulse rate

●     Respiratory rate

Also assess:

●     Body weight

●     Hydration

What is the normal respiratory rate?

10–34 breaths/minute (unless panting)

 What is the normal heart rate?

●     Large breeds: 60–100 bpm

●     Small breeds: 100–140 bpm

What is the normal pulse rate?

●     Puppies: up to 220 bpm

●     Adults: 70–160 bpm

What should be examined in the head and mouth?

Assess:

●     Symmetry

●     Swellings

●     Lumps

●     Bumps

Check the mouth for:

●     Gums

●     Mucous membrane colour

●     Capillary refill time

●     Teeth

●     Odour

What should be examined in the ears?

Look for:

●     Discharge

●     Odour

●     Redness

●     Scratching

What should be examined in the eyes?

Assess:

●     Symmetry

●     Third eyelid

●     Discharge

●     Redness

●     Pupillary light reflex

What are common eye problems?

●     Infection

●     Foreign body

●     Corneal ulcer

●     Breed-related anatomical disorders

What are common ear problems?

●     Ear infection

●     Ear parasites

●     Aural haematoma

●     Breed predisposition (floppy ears)

Why are lymph nodes examined?

Because enlarged lymph nodes are often the first sign of disease.

They may indicate:

●     Infection

●     Immune response

●     Neoplasia

●     Local or systemic disease

What are common signs of heart failure in dogs?

●     Cough

●     Dyspnoea

●     Weight loss

●     Ascites

●     Weakness

●     Lethargy

●     Exercise intolerance

●     Depression

●     Restlessness

 What organs can normally be palpated during abdominal examination?

Normally palpable:

●     Intestinal loops

●     Bladder

●     Kidneys (sometimes)

Usually NOT palpable:

●     Liver

●     Stomach

●     Pancreas

What is the diagnostic pathway?

1.   Patient evaluation

2.   History

3.   Physical examination

4.   List patient problems

5.   Differential diagnosis (3–5)

6.   Definitive diagnosis

What are the principles of a diagnostic plan?

●     Take history first.

●     Perform physical examination.

●     Use the least invasive tests first.

●     Choose sensitive and specific tests.

●     Collect samples before treatment whenever possible.

What samples can be collected?

●     Blood

●     Urine

●     Faeces

●     Prostatic fluid

●     Cerebrospinal fluid

●     Body fluids

●     Tissue biopsy

What other diagnostic procedures may be used?

●     X-ray

●     Ultrasound

●     Endoscopy

●     ECG

●     Blood pressure

●     Digestive function tests

●     Kidney function tests

●     Endocrine tests

●     Allergy tests

How are common diseases treated in bacterial infection

Antibiotics

Drug use in Viral infection

Supportive treatment and prevention of secondary bacterial infection

Drug use in Neoplasma

Surgery or chemotherapy

Treatment in Trauma

Surgery

Treatment in Parasitic

Antiparasitic medication

Treatment plan

In consultation with owner discuss:

• Treatment options – understanding

• Prognosis • Economics

• Monitor patient

• Records – accurate, up to date, always document normal as well as abnormal

What is embryogenesis?

Embryogenesis is the process by which a fertilized egg develops into an embryo and lastly a fetus.

What happens after fertilization?

●     Fertilization forms a zygote.

●     The zygote undergoes rapid mitotic division without significant growth.

●     A multicellular embryo is formed.

What stages does the embryo develop through?

The embryo develops in the following order:

1.   Zygote

2.   Morula

3.   Germ layers

4.   Organ development

What are the three germ layers?

The reproductive organs develop from the intermediate mesoderm.

What structures develop from the Wolffian ducts?

The Wolffian ducts develop into the:

●     Epididymis

●     Vas deferens

●     Seminal vesicles

(Male reproductive tract)

What structures develop from the Müllerian ducts?

The Müllerian ducts develop into the:

●     Oviducts (Fallopian tubes)

●     Uterus

●     Cervix

●     Upper vagina

(Female reproductive tract)

What chromosomes determine sex?

The SRY (Sex-determining Region Y) gene initiates testis development.

hat happens if the SRY gene is abnormal?

●     Mutation of the SRY gene may produce an XY female.

●     Translocation of the SRY gene to an X chromosome may produce an XX male.

What are common abnormal karyotypes?

●     XXX

●     XO (Turner syndrome)

●     XXY (Klinefelter syndrome)

●     XYY

What is Turner syndrome (XO)?

Turner syndrome causes:

●     Ovarian dysfunction

●     Absence of estrous/menstrual cycles

●     Sterility

What is Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)?

An abnormal male karyotype that may result in infertility, although many individuals show few clinical signs.

What is a hermaphrodite?

A hermaphrodite possesses both functional male and female reproductive organs and can produce both sperm and ova.

Examples:

●     Snails

●     Earthworms

What is intersexuality?

Intersexuality is a disorder in which chromosomes, gonads, or genitalia do not clearly indicate male or female sex.

What causes intersexuality?

Possible causes include:

●     Abnormal SRY gene

●     Abnormal Müllerian duct regression

●     Androgen insensitivity

●     Gonadal dysgenesis

What is the function of Müllerian-inhibiting substance (MIS)?

• Secreted by Sertoli cells.

• Causes regression of the Müllerian ducts during male fetal development.

What is a male pseudohermaphrodite?

A genetically male animal with testes but persistent Müllerian ducts or female reproductive structures due to androgen abnormalities

What is a bovine freemartin?

A sterile female calf born as the twin of a male calf due to sharing blood circulation during fetal life.

Describe intersexuality in pigs.

Intersexual pigs may have:

●     Ovotestis

●     Ovary and testis

●     Testis with a well-developed uterus

●     Enlarged clitoris

●     Narrow or closed vagina

Some intersexual pigs may become pregnant.

What are the major organs of the female reproductive system?

●     Ovaries

●     Oviducts (Fallopian tubes)

●     Uterus

●     Cervix

●     Vagina

●     Vulva

What are the major organs of the male reproductive system?

●     Testes

●     Epididymis

●     Vas deferens

●     Penis

●     Prostate gland

What is the function of Sertoli cells?

Sertoli cells support and nourish developing sperm cells

What is the function of Leydig cells?

Leydig cells produce:

●     Testosterone

●     Androstenedione

●     Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

What are common ovarian diseases?

●     Cystic follicles

●     Parovarian cysts

●     Lutein cysts

●     Cystic corpus luteum

●     Ovarian tumours

●     Ovarian agenesis

●     Ovarian hypoplasia

●     Ovaritis

What are parovarian cysts?

Fluid-filled epithelial cysts located beside the ovary and uterine tube.

What ovarian tumours are commonly mentioned?

●     Granulosa cell tumour

●     Haemangioma

●     Carcinoma

●     Dysgerminoma

What are common uterine diseases?

●     Endometritis

●     Metritis

●     Cystic endometrial hyperplasia

●     Leiomyoma

●     Adenocarcinoma

●     Pyometra

●     Uterine torsion

●     Uterine prolapse

What is pyometra?

Pyometra is a bacterial infection of the uterus associated with cystic endometrial hyperplasia and hormonal influence.

What is cystic endometrial hyperplasia?

A thickened cystic endometrium that predisposes the uterus to bacterial infection and pyometra.

What are non-infectious uterine disorders?

●     Müllerian duct abnormalities

●     Uterine torsion

●     Uterine prolapse

●     Hydrometra

●     Mucometra

●     Hydrosalpinx

What are common vaginal and vulvar diseases?

●     Vaginal prolapse

●     Vulvovaginitis

●     Fibropapilloma

●     Squamous cell carcinoma

●     Transmissible venereal tumour (TVT)

What is TVT (Transmissible Venereal Tumour)

TVT (Transmissible Venereal Tumour) is a contagious tumour transmitted during mating, especially in dogs.

What complications may occur after hysterectomy?

●     Blood loss

●     Septicemia

●     Incontinence

●     Inflammation

●     Strangulation of intestine or ureter

●     Retained instruments

What is balanoposthitis?

Inflammation of the penis and prepuce.

What are common penile tumours?

●     Squamous cell carcinoma

●     Venereal sarcoma (TVT)

What are common testicular diseases?

●     Haemorrhage

●     Torsion

●     Orchitis

●     Hyperplasia

●     Tumours

●     Fibrosis

What are common testicular tumours?

●     Seminoma

●     Sertoli cell tumour

●     Leydig cell tumour

●     Teratoma

What is orchitis?

Inflammation of the testes causing swelling, pain, and possible infertility.

What is a teratoma?

A tumour containing tissues derived from all three germ layers.

What is prostatic hyperplasia?

Benign enlargement of the prostate gland, commonly seen in older male dogs.