AP Psychology - Unit 1.1-1.4

Nature-nuture issue

A longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

Natural selection

The principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Evolutionary psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Behavior genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Mutation

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

Environment

Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us.

Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity.

Genome

The complete instructions for making an organism.

Identical (monozygotic) twins

Individuals develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

Individuals develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they share a prenatal environment.

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (environment) depends on another factor (heredity).

Epigenetics

“Above” or “in addition to” genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression.

Nervous system

The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system.

Central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs.

Sensory (afferent) neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the bodies tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor (efferent) nuerons

Neurons that carry ongoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord communicate internally and process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

Autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs and the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Sympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Reflex

A simple automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

Neurons

A nerve cell, the basic building block for the neurons system.

Cell body

The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life support center.

Dendrite

A neurons often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses towards the cell body.

Axon

The segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Myelin sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

Gial cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

Action potential

A neural impulse: a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Threshold

The level of stimulation to trigger a neural impulse

Refractory period

In neural processing, a brief resting pause occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

All-or-none response

A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing.

Synapse (synaptic gap)

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messages that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Endorphins

“Morphine-within”- natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure.

Agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.

Antagonist

A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.

Endocrine system

The body’s “slow” chemical communication system, a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues.

Psychoactive drugs

A chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perception and mood.

Substance-use disorder

A disorder characterized by the continued substance use despite significant life disruption.

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow bodily functions.

Tolerance

The ability to withstand or endure stressors, stimuli, or situations without experiencing significant distress or impairment.

Addiction

A chronic, relapsing brain disorder characterized by compulsive substance seeking and abuse, or compulsive endangerment in rewarding behaviors, despite harmful consequences.

barbituate

Drugs that depress the central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement.

Opioids

Opium and its derivative; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up bodily functions

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Near-death experience

An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.

Biological psychologists

The scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.

Biopsychosocial approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and socio-cultural levels of analysis.

Levels of analysis

The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to socio-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Lesion

Tissue destruction. Brain lesions may occur naturally, during surgery, or experimentally.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

fMRI (functional magnetic resource imaging)

A technique for revealing blood flow, and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.

Hindbrain

Consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; it directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as balance and coordination.

Midbrain

Found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information.

Forebrain

Consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; it manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities.

Brainstem

The central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The hindbrain structure that is the brain stem’s base; controls the heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

The forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem, directs messages to the sensory cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Reticular formation

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Cerebellum

The hindbrain’s “little brain,” is at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Limbic system

Neural system located mostly in the forebrain- below the cerebral hemispheres- that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

A limbic system neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating or drinking), helps govern the endocrine system, it is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system helps process explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events for storage.

Cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres, the body’s ultimate control and information processing center.

Frontal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic processing muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning.

Parietal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head, it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Temporal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas, such of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing.

Motor cortex

A cerebral cortex area near the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Somatosensory cortex

A cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

Corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Split brain

A condition that results from surgery that isolates the brains two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (corpus callosum) connecting them.