CH 1 pysch 100 additional flash

What is the testing effect?

The testing effect is improved long-term memory caused by actively retrieving information through self-testing rather than simply rereading it.

What is distributed practice?

Distributed practice means spacing study sessions over time instead of cramming the material into one long session.

What is overlearning?

Overlearning means continuing to study or practice material even after it has already been learned, which can strengthen retention.

What is positive psychology?

Positive psychology is the scientific study of human flourishing, including strengths, well-being, positive emotions, meaning, and optimal functioning.

Who is strongly associated with positive psychology?

Martin Seligman.

How is positive psychology different from humanistic psychology?

Both emphasize human potential and well-being, but positive psychology emphasizes scientific research and empirical measurement of flourishing and strengths.

What is the social-cultural perspective?

The social-cultural perspective examines how behavior and thinking vary across situations, cultures, societies, social roles, and relationships.

What are social-cultural influences?

Influences from culture, family, peers, social expectations, roles, traditions, and the situations in which people live.

What is introspection?

Introspection is looking inward and reporting immediate sensations, images, feelings, and conscious experiences.

What was structuralism?

Structuralism was an early school of psychology that used introspection to identify the basic elements or structures of conscious experience.

Who is most associated with structuralism?

Edward Titchener.

Who was Wilhelm Wundt?

Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, helping establish psychology as an experimental science.

Why is Wilhelm Wundt important to psychology?

His experimental laboratory helped separate psychology from philosophy and establish it as an independent scientific discipline.

Who was Edward Titchener?

Edward Titchener was Wundt's student who introduced structuralism and used introspection to study the elements of consciousness.

What was functionalism?

Functionalism studied how mental and behavioral processes function and help organisms adapt, survive, and flourish.

Who is most associated with functionalism?

William James.

Who was William James?

William James was an American psychologist and philosopher associated with functionalism who studied how mental processes help people adapt and function.

How did functionalism differ from structuralism?

Structuralism asked what the mind is made of and analyzed its basic components; functionalism asked what mental processes do and how they help organisms adapt.

Who was Mary Whiton Calkins?

Mary Whiton Calkins studied under William James, became a pioneering psychologist, and was the first woman elected president of the American Psychological Association.

Who was Margaret Floy Washburn?

Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman to earn a psychology PhD and became known for work involving animal behavior and mental processes.

What is behaviorism?

Behaviorism is the view that psychology should scientifically study observable behavior and how behavior is learned rather than relying on unobservable mental processes.

What is the behavioral perspective?

The behavioral perspective examines how learned associations, environmental events, reinforcement, punishment, and conditioning influence behavior.

What is conditioning?

Conditioning is a form of learning in which organisms learn associations between events or between behaviors and their consequences.

Who was John B. Watson?

John B. Watson was a major behaviorist who argued that psychology should focus on observable behavior and environmental learning.

Who was Rosalie Rayner?

Rosalie Rayner worked with John B. Watson on the Little Albert experiment demonstrating conditioned fear.

What did Watson and Rayner demonstrate with Little Albert?

They demonstrated that fear could be learned through conditioning by pairing a previously neutral stimulus with a frightening event.

Who was Ivan Pavlov?

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist famous for research with dogs that demonstrated classical conditioning.

What is Pavlov associated with?

Dogs, learned associations, and classical conditioning.

Who was B. F. Skinner?

B. F. Skinner was a behaviorist who studied how behavior is shaped by its consequences, especially reinforcement and punishment.

What is Skinner associated with?

Operant conditioning and the effects of reinforcement and punishment on behavior.

Watson and Rayner vs. Pavlov vs. Skinner?

Watson and Rayner = Little Albert and learned fear; Pavlov = dogs and classical conditioning; Skinner = consequences, reinforcement, punishment, and operant conditioning.

What is psychoanalytic psychology?

Psychoanalytic psychology is Freud's approach emphasizing unconscious motives, conflicts, drives, and the influence of early childhood experiences.

Who founded psychoanalytic psychology?

Sigmund Freud.

What did Freud believe strongly influences behavior?

Unconscious wishes, conflicts, motives, early childhood experiences, and psychological drives.

What are the three parts of Freud's theory of personality?

The id, ego, and superego.

What is the id?

The id is the largely unconscious part of personality that seeks immediate gratification of basic drives and desires.

What is the ego?

The ego operates according to reality and attempts to balance the demands of the id, superego, and real world.

What is the superego?

The superego represents internalized moral standards, ideals, and expectations.

What is the psychodynamic perspective?

The psychodynamic perspective examines how unconscious processes, inner conflicts, and early experiences influence present behavior.

What is the difference between psychoanalytic and psychodynamic psychology?

Psychoanalytic psychology refers especially to Freud's original theory, while psychodynamic approaches include later theories influenced by Freud's emphasis on unconscious processes and early experience.

What is humanistic psychology?

Humanistic psychology emphasizes human potential, personal growth, free will, self-concept, meaning, and the drive toward fulfillment.

Who are the two major humanistic psychologists?

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Who was Carl Rogers?

Carl Rogers was a humanistic psychologist who developed the person-centered approach and emphasized acceptance, genuineness, empathy, and personal growth.

What is Carl Rogers's person-centered approach?

A humanistic approach emphasizing a supportive environment in which genuineness, acceptance, and empathy help people grow.

What three qualities did Carl Rogers believe facilitate personal growth?

Genuineness, acceptance or unconditional positive regard, and empathy.

What is genuineness in Rogers's approach?

Being open, authentic, and honest rather than presenting a false front.

What is unconditional positive regard?

An attitude of acceptance and respect toward a person without making that acceptance dependent on meeting conditions.

What is empathy in Rogers's approach?

Understanding another person's feelings and experiences from that person's point of view.

Who was Abraham Maslow?

Abraham Maslow was a humanistic psychologist who emphasized human needs, personal growth, and self-actualization.

What is self-actualization?

Self-actualization is the process of fulfilling one's potential and becoming the person one is capable of becoming.

How does humanistic psychology differ from Freudian psychology?

Humanistic psychology emphasizes conscious choice, growth, potential, and positive development, whereas Freud emphasized unconscious conflict, drives, and early childhood experiences.

Who was Noam Chomsky?

Noam Chomsky was a linguist whose criticism of strict behaviorist explanations of language helped contribute to the cognitive revolution.

What is cognitive psychology?

Cognitive psychology scientifically studies mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, problem solving, language, and information processing.

What is active information processing?

Active information processing means the mind actively interprets, organizes, stores, transforms, and retrieves information rather than merely reacting passively to stimuli.

What is the cognitive perspective?

The cognitive perspective examines how people encode, process, store, retrieve, interpret, and use information.

What is cognitive neuroscience?

Cognitive neuroscience is the interdisciplinary study of brain activity associated with cognition, including perception, thinking, memory, and language.

What is the neuroscience perspective?

The neuroscience perspective examines how the brain, nervous system, hormones, genes, and other biological processes influence behavior and mental processes.

What is evolutionary psychology?

Evolutionary psychology studies how natural selection may have shaped universal behavioral tendencies and mental processes that helped ancestors survive and reproduce.

What is natural selection?

Natural selection is the process through which inherited traits that increase survival and reproductive success tend to become more common across generations.

How could anger be explained from an evolutionary perspective?

Anger may have been adaptive because it could help ancestors respond to threats, defend resources, compete, or protect themselves and others.

What is behavior genetics?

Behavior genetics studies the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors on individual differences in behavior and psychological traits.

What is the difference between evolutionary psychology and behavior genetics?

Evolutionary psychology asks how natural selection shaped common human tendencies across generations; behavior genetics examines how genes and environments contribute to differences among individuals.

What question might an evolutionary psychologist ask?

How might this behavior or mental tendency have helped our ancestors survive or reproduce?

What question might a behavior geneticist ask?

To what extent are individual differences in this trait influenced by genetic differences and environmental experiences?

What is the biopsychosocial approach?

The biopsychosocial approach explains behavior and mental processes by integrating biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences.

What three broad levels are combined by the biopsychosocial approach?

Biological influences, psychological influences, and social-cultural influences.

What are examples of biological influences?

Genetic predispositions, brain mechanisms, nervous-system activity, hormones, and evolutionary adaptations.

What are examples of psychological influences?

Learned fears and expectations, emotional responses, cognitive processing, beliefs, perceptions, and interpretations.

What are examples of social-cultural influences?

Cultural expectations, social roles, family, peers, relationships, education, and the presence or influence of other people.

What are the seven major theoretical perspectives in contemporary psychology?

Neuroscience, evolutionary, behavior genetics, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and social-cultural.

What does the neuroscience perspective focus on?

How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, sensory experiences, and other behaviors or mental processes.

What does the evolutionary perspective focus on?

How natural selection and adaptation may explain psychological traits and behaviors.

What does the behavior genetics perspective focus on?

How genes and environments influence individual differences.

What does the psychodynamic perspective focus on?

How unconscious drives, conflicts, and early experiences influence behavior.

What does the behavioral perspective focus on?

How behavior is acquired and changed through learning, conditioning, rewards, punishments, and environmental experiences.

What does the cognitive perspective focus on?

How information is encoded, processed, stored, retrieved, interpreted, and used.

What does the social-cultural perspective focus on?

How behavior and thinking vary across cultures, societies, social situations, and relationships.

A psychologist examines brain activity associated with depression. Which perspective?

Neuroscience perspective.

A psychologist asks how fear helped ancestors survive dangerous environments. Which perspective?

Evolutionary perspective.

A psychologist compares genetic and environmental influences on intelligence. Which perspective?

Behavior genetics.

A psychologist explains adult anxiety through unconscious childhood conflicts. Which perspective?

Psychodynamic perspective.

A psychologist studies how rewards increase studying. Which perspective?

Behavioral perspective.

A psychologist studies how someone's interpretation of an event affects emotion. Which perspective?

Cognitive perspective.

A psychologist compares behavior across Canadian and Japanese cultures. Which perspective?

Social-cultural perspective.

What does WEIRD stand for?

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic.

Why are WEIRD samples important to understand?

Psychological findings based mainly on WEIRD participants may not generalize accurately to people from all cultures and populations.

What is basic research?

Basic research is pure science intended primarily to build psychology's knowledge base.

What is applied research?

Applied research uses psychological science to address practical, real-world problems.

What is the key difference between basic and applied research?

Basic research expands knowledge and understanding; applied research attempts to solve practical problems.

What does biological psychology study?

Connections between biological processes, the brain, nervous system, genetics, and behavior or mental processes.

What does developmental psychology study?

Physical, cognitive, and social changes across the lifespan.

What does cognitive psychology study?

Mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, problem solving, and language.

What does personality psychology study?

Persistent patterns of thinking, feeling, motivation, and behavior that differ among individuals.

What does social psychology study?

How people think about, influence, and relate to one another.

What is industrial-organizational psychology?

Applied psychology that uses psychological principles and research methods to address workplace and organizational issues.

What is counseling psychology?

An applied field that helps people cope with life challenges, adjustment difficulties, relationships, and personal or social functioning.

What is clinical psychology?

A field that assesses, diagnoses, studies, and treats people with psychological, emotional, and behavioral disorders.

What is the difference between counseling and clinical psychology?

Counseling often emphasizes adjustment and everyday life challenges, while clinical psychology often deals more extensively with psychological disorders, although the fields overlap.

What is the difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist?

A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who can prescribe medication; psychologists typically have advanced psychology training and provide assessment, research, or therapy, with prescribing authority depending on jurisdiction.

What six broad areas does contemporary psychology study?

Biological, developmental, cognitive, personality, social, and related behavioral and mental processes across multiple levels of analysis.