Geographical Concepts and Mapping Techniques

Topographic Map: Contour Lines

Close lines = steep slope; wide lines = gentle slope.

Topographic Map: Gradient

Gradient = Vertical Height ÷ Horizontal Distance.

Topographic Map: Aspect

Aspect = The direction a slope faces (e.g. North).

Topographic Map: Bearing

Bearing = Angle measured clockwise from North using a protractor.

Topographic Map: Local Relief

Local Relief = Difference between highest and lowest points in an area.

Topographic Map: Scale

Scale tells the ratio between map distance and real distance (e.g. 1:50,000).

Latitude

Horizontal lines (Equator = 0°). Measure distance north/south of Equator.

Longitude

Vertical lines (Prime Meridian = 0°). Measure distance east/west of Prime Meridian.

Latitude & Longitude Coordinates

Written as (Latitude, Longitude).

Political Map

Map showing countries, borders, or cities.

Topographic Map

Map showing elevation and physical features using contour lines.

Choropleth Map

Map that uses colours/shading to represent data (e.g. population density).

Cartogram

Map where area size is distorted to represent data (e.g. GDP).

Climate Graph

Shows average monthly temperature (line) and rainfall (bars).

Population Pyramid

Graph showing age and sex distribution of a population.

Scatter Plot

Graph showing the relationship between two variables (e.g. income vs literacy).

Ternary Graph

Triangle graph showing 3 variables that add up to 100%.

Visual Representations

Images, cartoons, or infographics used to show information visually.

Four Spheres

Biosphere (life), Lithosphere (land), Atmosphere (air), Hydrosphere (water).

Biophysical Interactions

Interactions between the four spheres (e.g. deforestation affects all spheres).

Human Impact on Environment

Human actions change natural systems (e.g. pollution, deforestation, climate change).

Plastic Pollution: Case Study

Lord Howe Island: Plastic causes internal injuries in flesh-footed shearwater birds.

Climate Change: Causes

Increased greenhouse gases from fossil fuels, deforestation, agriculture.

Climate Change: Consequences

Rising sea levels, extreme weather, biodiversity loss.

Scales of Change

Local, national, and global impacts and responses.

HDI (Human Development Index)

Measures health, education, and income (0-1 score).

GDP

Gross Domestic Product = total value of goods/services produced in a country.

Happy Planet Index

Measures sustainable wellbeing (life expectancy + happiness ÷ ecological footprint).

OECD Better Life Index

Measures quality of life (jobs, income, health, education, etc.).

Bhutan's Happiness Index

Focuses on spiritual, emotional, and environmental wellbeing over economic growth.

Brandt Line

Divides 'Global North' (developed) and 'Global South' (developing) based on wealth.

Claymore, Western Sydney

Case study on inequality: low income, education disadvantage, health issues.

Opportunity Line

Line below which people lack access to opportunities (e.g. housing, education, jobs).

Demographic Transition Model

Shows how population changes through 5 stages of development.

SHEEPT

Social, Historical, Environmental, Economic, Political, Technological - factors affecting wellbeing.

MDGs (Millennium Development Goals)

8 global goals set by UN to improve life (2000-2015).

SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals)

17 global goals set by UN to reduce inequality and protect the planet by 2030.

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme - works to improve global wellbeing and reduce inequality.

Multiple Choice Exam Tips

Eliminate obviously wrong answers first. Read every option carefully.

Short Answer Exam Tips

Use the question stem and answer directly. Define key terms and give examples.

Extended Response Exam Tips

Use PEEL: Point, Evidence, Explain, Link. Use case studies and geographical terms.