Biol 211 Exam 4 SDSU

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Epidemiology

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The study of disease in populations

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Florence Nightingale

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The lady of the lamp, was one of the first epidemiologists and was active during the Crimean War. Fought for decontamination of hospital equipment to prevent infections

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105 Terms

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Epidemiology

The study of disease in populations

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Florence Nightingale

The lady of the lamp, was one of the first epidemiologists and was active during the Crimean War. Fought for decontamination of hospital equipment to prevent infections

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Diptheria and tetanus

Vaccinated against in the United States

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Ebola

Dangerous in close contact because it is very infectious

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CDC

Responsible for keeping track of diseases nationwide. Mandates that cases of certain diseases get reported to the government

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CDC MMWR

Morbidity mortality weekly report

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Prevalence

Number of existing cases in a population

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Incidence

Number of new cases over a certain time period (also known as case rate or mortality rate)

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Mortality rate

Number of deaths in a population because of a certain disease

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States with high Hepatitis C incidence

Arizona, Louisiana, Virginia

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What is causing the increase in malaria cases?

As global temperatures rise, the mosquitos that act as a vector's habitats are growing, making more people vulnerable to infection

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Point-source epidemic

Infectious agents come from a single causative source

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Common-source epidemic

Results from common exposure to a single source of infection that can occur over time

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Propagated epidemic

Infectious agent is communicable (spreads from person to person) and is sustained over time

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Why do we do quarantine and do social distancing?

To prevent spikes of cases that would overwhelm the hospital system

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Pandemic

Spread of an epidemic over continents

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Outbreak

Larger than expected increase in cases within a certain area

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Epidemic

Affects a large number of people within a localized region/population

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Endemic

A disease that is commonly found within a particular region and has established itself there

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Exposure usually leads to ______

Immunity

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Herd immunity

Immunity in a large enough amount of the population that the pathogne in unable to find enough hosts to survive

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Why is it a bad idea to rely on herd immunity for the COVID-19 crisis?

The death rate is too high, it is unclear how long the epidemic will go on for, and there is no evidence that exposure leads to immunity after recovery

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Index case

The first patient found in an epidemiological investigation (the case that starts an outbreak)

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Sporadic disease

Cases are reported at random intervals at random locations

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Gaetan Dugas

Mistakenly considered patient zero for HIV in the United States. he became hunted and ostracized

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Endemic region

One where there is a steady frequency in a long time period of a disease. There may be outbreaks at irregular intervals

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Emerging Infectious disease (EID)

A newly identified pathogen (such as COVID-19)

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Reemerging disease

A disease thought to be under control reappears

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Examples of reemerging diseases

Tuberculosis, yellow fever, Dengue fever

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Bioterrorism

The intentional or threatened use of microorganisms or toxins to cause death in humans, livestock, plants, etc.

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Examples of bioterrorism throughout history

-Assyrians putting ergot into enemies wells

-British/French/American soldiers giving smallpox blankets to Native Americans (intentionally and unintentionally)

-Hannibal throwing venomous serpents onto enemy ships

-Tartars catapulting their own dead, plague-ridden soldiers into a besieged city

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Geneva Convention

International legislation originally signed in 1928 (and updated since) that prohibits the use of biological agents during was

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Categories of biological defense disease agents

Category A (highest priority), Category B (moderate), Category C (lowest priority)

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Infection

A microorganism that has penetrated the host's body and is multiplying

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Pathologic state

The cumulative effects of infection damage to our health

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Disease

Deviation form health

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Infectious disease

Disruption of tissues or organs caused by microbes or their products (e.g. toxins)

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Flora

Organisms populating our bodies

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Resident/normal flora

Microbes that co-exist with us in a stable (differs from person to person)

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Fecal transplant

Used in people with Crohn's disease or those with colon/gut cancers, or in those with damaged intestines. Helps reestablish their gut flora

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Transient flora

May occasionally be present, but not present throughout our lifetimes (such as microbes picked up during travel)

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Opportunistic flora/endogenous infection

May or may not be normal, but can be pathogenic when the microbes enter a place they do not normally inhabit (such as going septic)

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Incubation

Time of infection until symptoms begin (can often still transmit the disease at this point as a carrier)

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Prodromal stage

Earliest symptoms, but still mild

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Height of infection/period of invasion

The most sick the patient will be from an infection

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Convalescent period

Immune system begins to defeat pathogen and reduce symptoms (can be with the help of drugs)

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Signs

What can be observed

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Examples of sign

Fever, rash, redness

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Symptoms

What the patient is feeling

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Examples of symptoms

Chills, headaches, pain, heat

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True/false: viruses are harder to make antibiotics for

True

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Why are antibiotics harder to make antibiotics for?

Less things to target: no ribosomes, cell walls, etc

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Chemotherapy

Using a chemical compound to treat a condition (not just cancer)

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Oetze/ice man

Man from 3300 BC, found with birth fungus on a string that indicates that his civilization had knowledge of disinfectants and coagulants

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Alexander Fleming

Discovered penicillin, which others later isolated and became the first known antibiotic

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True/false: microbistatic medications are preferred to microbicidal in most cases

False

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Microbicidal

Kills microbes

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Microbistatic

Inhibits growth of microbes with the goal of letting the immune system kill the remaining ones

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Antagonist

When an antibiotic acts against other antibiotics used and/or the patient's immune system

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Chemotherapeutic drug

Any chemical used in the treatment, relief, or prophylaxis of a disease

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Prophylaxis

Use of a drug to prevent imminent infection of a person at risk

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Antimicrobial chemotherapy

The use of chemotherapeutic drugs to control infection

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Antimicrobials

All-inclusive term for any antimicrobial drug, regardless of its origin

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Antibiotics

Substances produced by the natural metabolic processes of some microorganisms that can inhibit or destroy other microorganisms

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Semisynthetic drugs

Drugs that are chemically modified in the laboratory after being isolated from natural sources

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Synthetic drugs

Drugs produced entirely by chemical reactions within a laboratory setting

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Narrow-spectrum (limited spectrum)

Antimicrobials effective against a limited array of microbial types

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Broad-spectrum (extended spectrum)

Antimicrobials effective against a wide variety of microbial types

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What is a con of using broad-spectrum antimicrobials?

Wiping out the person's natural flora, leaving them prone to secondary infections

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Why are ribosomes a good target for antimicrobials?

Bacteria have different ribosomes than we do

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Quinolones

Inhibit DNA gyrase, preventing replication

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Sulfonamides/sulfa drugs

Block pathways and inhibits cellular metabolism

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Tetracycline

An extremely wide spectrum antibiotic

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Bacitracin

Antibiotic produced by Bacillus bacterium, used in things like Neosporin

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Vancomycin

Very effective medicine on the WHO essential medicines list, but can be dangerous in quantities that are too high (flushed skin)

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Hapten

An incomplete antigen that has to bind to a carrier protein in order to be recognized and attacked by the immune system

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Z pac/azithromycin

Orally taken antibiotic that is becoming more popular; is time released so doses are effective for a long time. Interferes with bacterial ribosomes

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Aminoglycosides

Made of a amino acid sugars; broad spectrum antibiotic produced by naturally occurring bacteria

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Sulfonamides

Modern synthetic antimicrobial drug that interferes with folic acid metabolism (effects synthesis of RNA, DNA, amino acids). Often used to treat shingellosis and UTIs

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True/false: people are often sensitive or fully allergic to sulfonamides

True

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Black box warning

Warning label in the box of a drug that makes sure you're aware of the potential side effects before taking it

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Drugs that affect nuclei acids

Fluoroquinolones

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Fluoroquinolones

Inhibit DNA unwinding enzymes or helicases, thereby stopping DNA transcription.Can have severe side effects such as seizures, dizziness/nausea, nerve and muscle function, and brain function

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Drugs that affect the membrane

Polymyxins

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Polymyxins

Interact with membrane phospholipids; distort the cell surface and cause leakage of protein and nitrogen bases, particularly in gram negative bacteria. Act as a surfactant, prevent a smooth phospholipid bilayer from forming

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What makes viruses hard to treat?

-Can be transmitted without symptoms

-Are very hard to detect

-Difficult to treat

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Antigenic shift

Two or more strains of a virus combine to form a subtype (similar to horizontal gene transfer), often leading to a more virulent form of the virus

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True/false: antigenic shift are the only way viruses can undergo horizontal gene transfer

True

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H1N1

A flu virus that affected those around college age only; resulted from a antigenic shift involving influenza and swine flu

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Antiviral drugs - inhibition of virus entry

Works on receptor fusion/uncoating inhibitors

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Tamiflu

Common antiviral drug that often makes people sick and often isn't effective

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Antiviral drugs - inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis

Prevent the virus from building its genome

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Ribavirin

Inhibits nucleic acid synthesis

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Antiviral drugs - inhibition of viral assembly/release

Inhibits protease that stops the virus from adding its DNA to the success

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Amphoterrible

When the amphotericin medication makes us feel worse than the infection itself

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Amphotericin

Most common antifungal medication, isolated from Strep. Bonds to a sterol, which is toxic to our cells as well

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WHO Priority Pathogens List

Ranks pathogens as Priority 1 (critical/highest), Priority 2 (high), and priority 3 (medium)

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True/false: many modern antibiotics have gone through multiple generations of development

True

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How antibiotic resistant forms of bacteria are naturally selected

1. A large bacteria of population is present, some of them being resistant

2. Bacteria get bathed in antibiotics and most of the normal bacteria die

3. Resistant bacteria die and become more common

4. Eventually, the entire infection evolves into a resistant strain

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Transposons

Jumping genes; short strands of DNA capable of moving from one location to another within a cell's genetic material